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Hydrogen sulfide (edit)

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* '''Vitamins''' - Vitamins should be supplemented in wine. Supplementation is not strictly necessary in beer production since [[wort]] typically contains adequate vitamins,<ref>Briggs DE, Hough JS, Stevens R, Young TW. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bHuCdG5VSmUC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&source=bl&ots=8c_VpU3Fs4&sig=ACfU3U1fgQ3aPJpEANWLRXjbv580IWc1Zw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq96Ouqp_oAhUGVa0KHf3bDJoQ6AEwA3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&f=false ''Malting and Brewing Science: Malt and Sweet Wort.''] 2nd ed. Kluwer Academic Plenum Publishers; 1981:92.</ref><ref name=fix/><ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref> although it is potentially helpful. Deficiencies of [[pantothenic acid]] and [[pyridoxine]] (co-factors to SRS enzymes) may cause overproduction of H<sub>2</sub>S — even when adequate [[nitrogen]] is present.<ref name=Jiranek/><ref name=Jiranek2002/><ref name=Wang>Wang XD, Bohlscheid JC, Edwards CG. [https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01827.x Fermentative activity and production of volatile compounds by ''Saccharomyces'' grown in synthetic grape juice media deficient in assimilable nitrogen and/or pantothenic acid.] ''J Appl Microbiol.'' 2003;94(3):349–359.</ref><ref name="Tokuyama">Tokuyama T, Kuraishi H, Aida K, Uemura T. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jgam1955/19/6/19_6_439/_pdf Hydrogen sulfide evolution due to pantothenic acid deficiency in the yeast requiring this vitamin, with special reference to the effect of adenosine triphosphate on yeast cysteine desulfhydrase.] ''J Gen Appl Microbiol.'' 1973;19:439–466.</ref><ref name="Bohlscheid"/> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast Nutrition]])
* '''Vitamins''' - Vitamins should be supplemented in wine. Supplementation is not strictly necessary in beer production since [[wort]] typically contains adequate vitamins,<ref>Briggs DE, Hough JS, Stevens R, Young TW. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bHuCdG5VSmUC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&source=bl&ots=8c_VpU3Fs4&sig=ACfU3U1fgQ3aPJpEANWLRXjbv580IWc1Zw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq96Ouqp_oAhUGVa0KHf3bDJoQ6AEwA3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&f=false ''Malting and Brewing Science: Malt and Sweet Wort.''] 2nd ed. Kluwer Academic Plenum Publishers; 1981:92.</ref><ref name=fix/><ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref> although it is potentially helpful. Deficiencies of [[pantothenic acid]] and [[pyridoxine]] (co-factors to SRS enzymes) may cause overproduction of H<sub>2</sub>S — even when adequate [[nitrogen]] is present.<ref name=Jiranek/><ref name=Jiranek2002/><ref name=Wang>Wang XD, Bohlscheid JC, Edwards CG. [https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01827.x Fermentative activity and production of volatile compounds by ''Saccharomyces'' grown in synthetic grape juice media deficient in assimilable nitrogen and/or pantothenic acid.] ''J Appl Microbiol.'' 2003;94(3):349–359.</ref><ref name="Tokuyama">Tokuyama T, Kuraishi H, Aida K, Uemura T. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jgam1955/19/6/19_6_439/_pdf Hydrogen sulfide evolution due to pantothenic acid deficiency in the yeast requiring this vitamin, with special reference to the effect of adenosine triphosphate on yeast cysteine desulfhydrase.] ''J Gen Appl Microbiol.'' 1973;19:439–466.</ref><ref name="Bohlscheid"/> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast Nutrition]])
* '''Nitrogen''' - Supplementing [[yeast-assimilable nitrogen]] (YAN) can help lower sulfide production, but only when there are also adequate co-factors (vitamins) present for the SRS.<ref name="Jiranek"/><ref name="Park">Park SK, Boulton RB, Noble AC. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/51/2/91.short Formation of hydrogen sulfide and glutathione during fermentation of white grape musts.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2000;51(2):91–97.</ref> Otherwise nitrogen supplementation may ''increase'' sulfide production.<ref name="Bohlscheid"/><ref name="Wang"/><ref>Kumar GR, Ramakrishnan V, Bisson LF. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/61/3/365.short Survey of hydrogen sulfide production in wine strains of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2010;61(3):365–371.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref name="Ugliano">Ugliano M, Kolouchova R, Henschke PA. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10295-010-0786-6 Occurrence of hydrogen sulfide in wine and in fermentation: influence of yeast strain and supplementation of yeast available nitrogen.] ''J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol.'' 2011;38:423–429.</ref><ref name="UglianoM"/> There may also be some variability among yeast strains or species with regard to whether increasing nitrogen decreases sulfide formation.<ref name="UglianoM"/><ref>Mendes-Ferreira A, Mendes-Faia A, Leão C. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11282471_Survey_of_Hydrogen_Sulphide_Production_by_Wine_Yeasts Survey of hydrogen sulphide production by wine yeasts.] ''J Food Prot.'' 2002;65(6):1033–1037.</ref> Similar to vitamins, nitrogen supplementation in [[wort]] or beer is not always required, but still may be helpful under certain conditions.<ref name="Duan">Duan WD, Roddick FA, Higgins VJ, Rogers PJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281600914_A_Parallel_Analysis_of_H2S_and_SO2_Formation_by_Brewing_Yeast_in_Response_to_Sulfur-Containing_Amino_Acids_and_Ammonium_Ions A parallel analysis of H2S and SO2 formation by brewing yeast in response to sulfur-containing amino acids and ammonium ions.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2004;62(1):35–41.</ref><ref name="Ferreira">Ferreira IM, Guido LF. [https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/4/2/23/pdf Impact of wort amino acids on beer flavour: a review.] ''Fermentation (Basel).'' 2018;4(23).</ref> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast]])
* '''Nitrogen''' - Supplementing [[yeast-assimilable nitrogen]] (YAN) can help lower sulfide production, but only when there are also adequate co-factors (vitamins) present for the SRS.<ref name="Jiranek"/><ref name="Park">Park SK, Boulton RB, Noble AC. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/51/2/91.short Formation of hydrogen sulfide and glutathione during fermentation of white grape musts.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2000;51(2):91–97.</ref> Otherwise nitrogen supplementation may ''increase'' sulfide production.<ref name="Bohlscheid"/><ref name="Wang"/><ref>Kumar GR, Ramakrishnan V, Bisson LF. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/61/3/365.short Survey of hydrogen sulfide production in wine strains of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2010;61(3):365–371.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref name="Ugliano">Ugliano M, Kolouchova R, Henschke PA. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10295-010-0786-6 Occurrence of hydrogen sulfide in wine and in fermentation: influence of yeast strain and supplementation of yeast available nitrogen.] ''J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol.'' 2011;38:423–429.</ref><ref name="UglianoM"/> There may also be some variability among yeast strains or species with regard to whether increasing nitrogen decreases sulfide formation.<ref name="UglianoM"/><ref>Mendes-Ferreira A, Mendes-Faia A, Leão C. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11282471_Survey_of_Hydrogen_Sulphide_Production_by_Wine_Yeasts Survey of hydrogen sulphide production by wine yeasts.] ''J Food Prot.'' 2002;65(6):1033–1037.</ref> Similar to vitamins, nitrogen supplementation in [[wort]] or beer is not always required, but still may be helpful under certain conditions.<ref name="Duan">Duan WD, Roddick FA, Higgins VJ, Rogers PJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281600914_A_Parallel_Analysis_of_H2S_and_SO2_Formation_by_Brewing_Yeast_in_Response_to_Sulfur-Containing_Amino_Acids_and_Ammonium_Ions A parallel analysis of H2S and SO2 formation by brewing yeast in response to sulfur-containing amino acids and ammonium ions.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2004;62(1):35–41.</ref><ref name="Ferreira">Ferreira IM, Guido LF. [https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/4/2/23/pdf Impact of wort amino acids on beer flavour: a review.] ''Fermentation (Basel).'' 2018;4(23).</ref> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast]])
* '''Yeast strain''' - Low sulfide-producing and/or low nitrogen-requirement yeast strains may be considered.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/> Unfortunately it is not very well known which strains are high or low producers of H<sub>2</sub>S. Scott Labs and Renaissance Yeast have both bred some wine yeast strains specifically to reduce sulfide production.<ref>[https://scottlab.com/h2s-production Understanding the production of hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) during fermentation.] Scott Laboratories. Accessed March 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.thebeveragepeople.com/products/yeast/10-g-fresco-cider-wine-yeast.html 10 g fresco cider yeast - H2S preventing.] The Beverage People. Accessed March 2020.</ref>
* '''Yeast strain''' - Low sulfide-producing and/or low nitrogen-requirement yeast strains may be considered.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/> Unfortunately it is not very well known which strains are high or low producers of H<sub>2</sub>S. Scott Labs and Renaissance Yeast have both bred some wine yeast strains specifically to reduce sulfide production.<ref>[https://scottlab.com/preventing-and-treating-sulfur-off-odors-in-cider Preventing and treating sulfur off-odors in cider.] Scott Laboratories website. 2023. Accessed online May 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.thebeveragepeople.com/products/yeast/10-g-fresco-cider-wine-yeast.html 10 g fresco cider yeast - H2S preventing.] The Beverage People. Accessed March 2020.</ref>
* '''Pitch rate and yeast health''' - Pitch healthy yeast at a good pitch rate to decrease nutrient demand.<ref name="Ferreira"/><ref name="Zoecklein"/> "Shocking" the yeast (rapid changes in growth conditions like temperature or [[pH]]) should be avoided.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/><ref name="OsborneJ">Osborne JP. [https://owri.oregonstate.edu/sites/agsci/files/owri/05_vitnewsletteroct07webversion.pdf Sulfides and mercaptans in wine.] Oregon State University Wine and Grape Research and Extension Newsletter. Published October 2007.</ref> Significant over-pitching may also cause excessive sulfide.<ref name="fart"/><ref name=fix/> Even re-pitching yeast may cause increased production of sulfide.<ref>Thorne RSW. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1968.tb03167.x Some observations on yeast mutation during continuous fermentation.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1968;74:516–524.</ref> (See [[Yeast]])
* '''Pitch rate and yeast health''' - Pitch healthy yeast at a good pitch rate to decrease nutrient demand.<ref name="Ferreira"/><ref name="Zoecklein"/> "Shocking" the yeast (rapid changes in growth conditions like temperature or [[pH]]) should be avoided.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/><ref name="OsborneJ">Osborne JP. [https://owri.oregonstate.edu/sites/agsci/files/owri/05_vitnewsletteroct07webversion.pdf Sulfides and mercaptans in wine.] Oregon State University Wine and Grape Research and Extension Newsletter. Published October 2007.</ref> Significant over-pitching may also cause excessive sulfide.<ref name="fart"/><ref name=fix/> Even re-pitching yeast may cause increased production of sulfide.<ref>Thorne RSW. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1968.tb03167.x Some observations on yeast mutation during continuous fermentation.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1968;74:516–524.</ref> (See [[Yeast]])
* '''Fermentation temperature''' - Generally lower temperatures decrease sulfide liberation, although not necessarily because of decreased production.<ref name="Bohlscheid">Bohlscheid JC,  Osborne JP, Ross CF, Edwards CG. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2010.00365.x Interactive effects of selected nutrients and fermentation temperature on H<sub>2</sub>S production by wine strains of ''Saccharomyces''.] ''J Food Qual.'' 2011;34:51–55.</ref> However each strain has an optimum fermentation temperature to minimize its production, so lower temperature doesn't always mean lower sulfide production.<ref name="Kim">Kim YR, Moon ST, Park SK. [http://ocean.kisti.re.kr/downfile/volume/ksfst1/SPGHB5/2008/v40n2/SPGHB5_2008_v40n2_238.pdf Effects of yeast strains and fermentation temperatures in production of hydrogen sulfide during beer fermentation.] ''Korean J Food Sci Technol.'' 2008;40(2):238–242.</ref> The fermentation temperature should be controlled within the suggested range of the yeast. (See [[Temperature control]])
* '''Fermentation temperature''' - Generally lower temperatures decrease sulfide liberation, although not necessarily because of decreased production.<ref name="Bohlscheid">Bohlscheid JC,  Osborne JP, Ross CF, Edwards CG. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2010.00365.x Interactive effects of selected nutrients and fermentation temperature on H<sub>2</sub>S production by wine strains of ''Saccharomyces''.] ''J Food Qual.'' 2011;34:51–55.</ref> However each strain has an optimum fermentation temperature to minimize its production, so lower temperature doesn't always mean lower sulfide production.<ref name="Kim">Kim YR, Moon ST, Park SK. [http://ocean.kisti.re.kr/downfile/volume/ksfst1/SPGHB5/2008/v40n2/SPGHB5_2008_v40n2_238.pdf Effects of yeast strains and fermentation temperatures in production of hydrogen sulfide during beer fermentation.] ''Korean J Food Sci Technol.'' 2008;40(2):238–242.</ref> The fermentation temperature should be controlled within the suggested range of the yeast. (See [[Temperature control]])
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