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Hydrogen sulfide: Difference between revisions
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[[Category:off flavors]] [[Category:brewing chemistry]] | [[Category:off flavors]] [[Category:brewing chemistry]] | ||
[[File:1024px-Tavurvur volcano edit.jpg|thumb|Volcanic gas]] | [[File:1024px-Tavurvur volcano edit.jpg|thumb|Volcanic gas]] | ||
Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), or just "sulfide" is a microbe-derived off flavor. It is the most common of a group of fermentation products known as volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). Sulfide aroma and flavor is often described as sulfurous like rotten eggs, "rhino farts", sewer, or volcanic gas. It is also sometimes called a "[[reductive]]" | Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), or just "sulfide" is a microbe-derived off flavor. It is the most common of a group of fermentation products known as volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). Sulfide aroma and flavor is often described as sulfurous like rotten eggs, "rhino farts", sewer, or volcanic gas. It is also sometimes called a "[[reductive aroma]]" because it is more likely to accumulate under low-oxygen conditions.<ref name="Jastrzembski"/> | ||
Sulfide is one of the most common off flavors that occurs in [[wine]] and [[cider]]. It can also occur in [[beer]] and other [[fermented beverages]].<ref>Smith B. [http://beersmith.com/blog/2018/11/05/sulfur-and-rotten-egg-aromas-in-beer-off-flavors-in-home-brewing/ Sulfur and rotten egg aromas in beer – off flavors in home brewing.] BeerSmith Brewing Blog. Published 2018. Accessed July 2020.</ref> In fact, a slight note of sulfide may be acceptable in some styles of lager. The recognition threshold of sulfide is about 1-2 µg/L (parts per billion) and even lower levels can play a role in aroma complexity, or mask desirable aromas.<ref name="oka">Oka K, Hayashi T, Matsumoto N, Yanase H. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4c99/c9be2c401ada550eb779b865ab695c8df000.pdf Decrease in hydrogen sulfide content during the final stage of beer fermentation due to involvement of yeast and not carbon dioxide gas purging.] ''J Biosci Bioeng.'' 2008;106(3):253–257.</ref><ref name="Kaiser">Kaiser KJ. [https://brocku.ca/ccovi/wp-content/uploads/sites/125/Karl-Kaiser-Controlling-reductive-red-wine-aroma-2010-.pdf Controlling reductive wine aromas.] CCOVI lecture series presented at: Brock University; Feb 1, 2010; St. Catharines, Ontario. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref>[https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hydrogensulfide/hazards.html Hydrogen sulfide hazards.] Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Accessed March 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208170/ Hydrogen sulfide acute exposure guideline levels.] In: National Research Council (US) Committee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels. ''Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals.'' 9th ed. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-114.pdf ToxGuide™ for hydrogen sulfide H<sub>2</sub>S.] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Published December 2016. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1963A.pdf Odor perception and physiological response.] The Science of Smell Part 1. Iowa State University. Published May 2004. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.aroxa.com/wine/wine-flavour-standard/hydrogen-sulphide/ Hydrogen sulphide.] Aroxa. Accessed March 2020.</ref> | Sulfide is one of the most common off flavors that occurs in [[wine]] and [[cider]]. It can also occur in [[beer]] and other [[fermented beverages]].<ref>Smith B. [http://beersmith.com/blog/2018/11/05/sulfur-and-rotten-egg-aromas-in-beer-off-flavors-in-home-brewing/ Sulfur and rotten egg aromas in beer – off flavors in home brewing.] BeerSmith Brewing Blog. Published 2018. Accessed July 2020.</ref> In fact, a slight note of sulfide may be acceptable in some styles of lager. The recognition threshold of sulfide is about 1-2 µg/L (parts per billion) and even lower levels can play a role in aroma complexity, or mask desirable aromas.<ref name="oka">Oka K, Hayashi T, Matsumoto N, Yanase H. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4c99/c9be2c401ada550eb779b865ab695c8df000.pdf Decrease in hydrogen sulfide content during the final stage of beer fermentation due to involvement of yeast and not carbon dioxide gas purging.] ''J Biosci Bioeng.'' 2008;106(3):253–257.</ref><ref name="Kaiser">Kaiser KJ. [https://brocku.ca/ccovi/wp-content/uploads/sites/125/Karl-Kaiser-Controlling-reductive-red-wine-aroma-2010-.pdf Controlling reductive wine aromas.] CCOVI lecture series presented at: Brock University; Feb 1, 2010; St. Catharines, Ontario. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref>[https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hydrogensulfide/hazards.html Hydrogen sulfide hazards.] Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Accessed March 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208170/ Hydrogen sulfide acute exposure guideline levels.] In: National Research Council (US) Committee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels. ''Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals.'' 9th ed. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-114.pdf ToxGuide™ for hydrogen sulfide H<sub>2</sub>S.] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Published December 2016. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1963A.pdf Odor perception and physiological response.] The Science of Smell Part 1. Iowa State University. Published May 2004. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.aroxa.com/wine/wine-flavour-standard/hydrogen-sulphide/ Hydrogen sulphide.] Aroxa. Accessed March 2020.</ref> | ||
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Maximum amounts of sulfide are liberated when the depletion of nitrogen occurs during the exponential growth phase. Conversely, when depletion of nitrogen occurs during the stationary phase, sulfide liberation is a lower amount and is short-lived.<ref name="Jiranek"/> (See [[Yeast]] for more about growth phases.) | Maximum amounts of sulfide are liberated when the depletion of nitrogen occurs during the exponential growth phase. Conversely, when depletion of nitrogen occurs during the stationary phase, sulfide liberation is a lower amount and is short-lived.<ref name="Jiranek"/> (See [[Yeast]] for more about growth phases.) | ||
While sulfide formation occurs mainly during [[primary fermentation]], additional VSCs can be formed at later stages of production, particularly in wine.<ref name="Muller"/> This phenomenon is rarely a problem in beer production. VSC formation in wine can be difficult to predict and is not necessarily related to sulfide issues during the primary fermentation.<ref name="Osborne"/> The VSCs involved include [[mercaptans]] (AKA thiols or mono-sulfides or higher sulfides) and [[disulfides]] that have distinctive aromas such as skunky, rubbery, garlic, onion, or cabbage-like.<ref name="Osborne"/><ref name="Huang"/><ref>[https://www.etslabs.com/library/31 Volatile sulfides: detection and prevention.] ETS Laboratories. Accessed March 2020.</ref> These compounds result from degradation of sulfur-containing compounds in the yeast [[lees]], and chemically-bound sulfide may be released during aging or storage.<ref name="Osborne"/><ref name="Rauhut"/><ref name="Jastrzembski">Jastrzembski J, Sacks G. [https://grapesandwine.cals.cornell.edu/sites/grapesandwine.cals.cornell.edu/files/shared/Research%20Focus%202016-3a.pdf Sulfur residues and post-bottling formation of hydrogen sulfide.] Research News from Cornell's Viticulture and Enology Program Research Focus. 2016;3a.</ref> Sulfide formation has also been reported to occur in the bottle when naturally bottle carbonating with yeast.<ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/forum/threads/preventing-sulfide-when-bottle-conditioning.665501/ Preventing sulfide when bottle conditioning.] HomebrewTalk forum. Published 2019. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/forum/threads/sulfur-after-bottling-what-can-be-done.677439/ "Sulfur after bottling...what can be done?"] HomebrewTalk forum. Published 2020. Accessed July 2020.</ref> Even VSCs that had apparently been removed may reappear if conditions in wine become more [[reductive]] (e.g. during barrel aging or in the bottle).<ref name="Elusive"/><ref name="Vela">Vela E, Hernandez-Orte P, Franco-Luesma E, Ferreira V. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814617315984 Micro-oxygenation does not eliminate hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans from wine; it simply shifts redox and complex-related equilibria to reversible oxidized species and complexed forms.] ''Food Chem.'' 2018;243:222–230.</ref> | While sulfide formation occurs mainly during [[primary fermentation]], additional VSCs can be formed at later stages of production, particularly in wine.<ref name="Muller"/> This phenomenon is rarely a problem in beer production. VSC formation in wine can be difficult to predict and is not necessarily related to sulfide issues during the primary fermentation.<ref name="Osborne"/> The VSCs involved include [[mercaptans]] (AKA thiols or mono-sulfides or higher sulfides) and [[disulfides]] that have distinctive aromas such as skunky, rubbery, garlic, onion, or cabbage-like.<ref name="Osborne"/><ref name="Huang"/><ref>[https://www.etslabs.com/library/31 Volatile sulfides: detection and prevention.] ETS Laboratories. Accessed March 2020.</ref> These compounds result from degradation of sulfur-containing compounds in the yeast [[lees]], and chemically-bound sulfide may be released during aging or storage.<ref name="Osborne"/><ref name="Rauhut"/><ref name="Jastrzembski">Jastrzembski J, Sacks G. [https://grapesandwine.cals.cornell.edu/sites/grapesandwine.cals.cornell.edu/files/shared/Research%20Focus%202016-3a.pdf Sulfur residues and post-bottling formation of hydrogen sulfide.] Research News from Cornell's Viticulture and Enology Program Research Focus. 2016;3a.</ref> Sulfide formation has also been reported to occur in the bottle when naturally bottle carbonating with yeast.<ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/forum/threads/preventing-sulfide-when-bottle-conditioning.665501/ Preventing sulfide when bottle conditioning.] HomebrewTalk forum. Published 2019. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/forum/threads/sulfur-after-bottling-what-can-be-done.677439/ "Sulfur after bottling...what can be done?"] HomebrewTalk forum. Published 2020. Accessed July 2020.</ref> Even VSCs that had apparently been removed may reappear if conditions in wine become more [[reductive aroma|reductive]] (e.g. during barrel aging or in the bottle).<ref name="Elusive"/><ref name="Vela">Vela E, Hernandez-Orte P, Franco-Luesma E, Ferreira V. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814617315984 Micro-oxygenation does not eliminate hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans from wine; it simply shifts redox and complex-related equilibria to reversible oxidized species and complexed forms.] ''Food Chem.'' 2018;243:222–230.</ref> | ||
There is not always correlation between total sulfide produced by yeast during fermentation and the sulfide concentration in the final wine/beer/etc.<ref name="UglianoM">Ugliano M, Fedrizzi B, Siebert T, et al. [https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf8037693 Effect of nitrogen supplementation and ''Saccharomyces'' species on hydrogen sulfide and other volatile sulfur compounds in shiraz fermentation and wine.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2009;57(11):4948–4955.</ref><ref name="Ugliano"/> | There is not always correlation between total sulfide produced by yeast during fermentation and the sulfide concentration in the final wine/beer/etc.<ref name="UglianoM">Ugliano M, Fedrizzi B, Siebert T, et al. [https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf8037693 Effect of nitrogen supplementation and ''Saccharomyces'' species on hydrogen sulfide and other volatile sulfur compounds in shiraz fermentation and wine.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2009;57(11):4948–4955.</ref><ref name="Ugliano"/> | ||