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Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), or just "sulfide" is a microbe-derived off flavor. It is the most common of a group of fermentation products known as volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). Sulfide aroma and flavor is often described as sulfurous like rotten eggs, "rhino farts", sewer, or volcanic gas. It is also sometimes called a "[[reductive aroma]]" because it is more likely to accumulate under low-oxygen conditions.<ref name="Jastrzembski"/>
Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), or just "sulfide" is a microbe-derived off flavor. It is the most common of a group of fermentation products known as volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). Sulfide aroma and flavor is often described as sulfurous like rotten eggs, "rhino farts", sewer, or volcanic gas. It is also sometimes called a "[[reductive aroma]]" because it is more likely to accumulate under low-oxygen conditions.<ref name="Jastrzembski"/>


Sulfide is one of the most common off flavors that occurs in [[wine]] and [[cider]]. It can also occur in [[beer]] and other [[fermented beverages]].<ref>Smith B. [http://beersmith.com/blog/2018/11/05/sulfur-and-rotten-egg-aromas-in-beer-off-flavors-in-home-brewing/ Sulfur and rotten egg aromas in beer – off flavors in home brewing.] BeerSmith Brewing Blog. Published 2018. Accessed July 2020.</ref> In fact, a slight note of sulfide may be acceptable in some styles of lager. The recognition threshold of sulfide is about 1-2 µg/L (parts per billion) and even lower levels can play a role in aroma complexity, or mask desirable aromas.<ref name="oka">Oka K, Hayashi T, Matsumoto N, Yanase H. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4c99/c9be2c401ada550eb779b865ab695c8df000.pdf Decrease in hydrogen sulfide content during the final stage of beer fermentation due to involvement of yeast and not carbon dioxide gas purging.] ''J Biosci Bioeng.'' 2008;106(3):253–257.</ref><ref name="Kaiser">Kaiser KJ. [https://brocku.ca/ccovi/wp-content/uploads/sites/125/Karl-Kaiser-Controlling-reductive-red-wine-aroma-2010-.pdf Controlling reductive wine aromas.] CCOVI lecture series presented at: Brock University; Feb 1, 2010; St. Catharines, Ontario. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref>[https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hydrogensulfide/hazards.html Hydrogen sulfide hazards.] Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Accessed March 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208170/ Hydrogen sulfide acute exposure guideline levels.] In: National Research Council (US) Committee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels. ''Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals.'' 9th ed. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-114.pdf ToxGuide&trade; for hydrogen sulfide H<sub>2</sub>S.] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Published December 2016. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1963A.pdf Odor perception and physiological response.] The Science of Smell Part 1. Iowa State University. Published May 2004. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.aroxa.com/wine/wine-flavour-standard/hydrogen-sulphide/ Hydrogen sulphide.] Aroxa. Accessed March 2020.</ref>
Sulfide is one of the most common off flavors that occurs in [[wine]] and [[cider]]. It can also occur in [[beer]] and other [[fermented beverages]].<ref>Smith B. [http://beersmith.com/blog/2018/11/05/sulfur-and-rotten-egg-aromas-in-beer-off-flavors-in-home-brewing/ Sulfur and rotten egg aromas in beer – off flavors in home brewing.] BeerSmith Brewing Blog. Published 2018. Accessed July 2020.</ref> In fact, a slight note of sulfide may be acceptable in some styles of lager. The recognition threshold of sulfide is about 1-2 µg/L (parts per billion) and even lower levels can play a role in aroma complexity, or mask desirable aromas.<ref name="oka">Oka K, Hayashi T, Matsumoto N, Yanase H. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4c99/c9be2c401ada550eb779b865ab695c8df000.pdf Decrease in hydrogen sulfide content during the final stage of beer fermentation due to involvement of yeast and not carbon dioxide gas purging.] ''J Biosci Bioeng.'' 2008;106(3):253–257.</ref><ref name="Kaiser">Kaiser KJ. [https://brocku.ca/ccovi/wp-content/uploads/sites/125/Karl-Kaiser-Controlling-reductive-red-wine-aroma-2010-.pdf Controlling reductive wine aromas.] CCOVI lecture series presented at: Brock University; Feb 1, 2010; St. Catharines, Ontario. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref>[https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hydrogensulfide/hazards.html Hydrogen sulfide hazards.] Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Accessed March 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208170/ Hydrogen sulfide acute exposure guideline levels.] In: National Research Council (US) Committee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels. ''Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals.'' 9th ed. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-114.pdf ToxGuide&trade; for hydrogen sulfide H<sub>2</sub>S.] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Published December 2016. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>[http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1963A.pdf Odor perception and physiological response.] The Science of Smell Part 1. Iowa State University. Published May 2004. Accessed July 2020.</ref>


The odor threshold is well below the threshold for human toxicity, and therefore safety is generally not a concern.<ref>Guidotti TL. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1091581810384882 Hydrogen sulfide: advances in understanding human toxicity.] ''Int J Toxicol.'' 2010;29(6):569–581.</ref>
The odor threshold is well below the threshold for human toxicity, and therefore safety is generally not a concern.<ref>Guidotti TL. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1091581810384882 Hydrogen sulfide: advances in understanding human toxicity.] ''Int J Toxicol.'' 2010;29(6):569–581.</ref>
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* '''Vitamins''' - Vitamins should be supplemented in wine. Supplementation is not strictly necessary in beer production since [[wort]] typically contains adequate vitamins,<ref>Briggs DE, Hough JS, Stevens R, Young TW. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bHuCdG5VSmUC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&source=bl&ots=8c_VpU3Fs4&sig=ACfU3U1fgQ3aPJpEANWLRXjbv580IWc1Zw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq96Ouqp_oAhUGVa0KHf3bDJoQ6AEwA3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&f=false ''Malting and Brewing Science: Malt and Sweet Wort.''] 2nd ed. Kluwer Academic Plenum Publishers; 1981:92.</ref><ref name=fix/><ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref> although it is potentially helpful. Deficiencies of [[pantothenic acid]] and [[pyridoxine]] (co-factors to SRS enzymes) may cause overproduction of H<sub>2</sub>S — even when adequate [[nitrogen]] is present.<ref name=Jiranek/><ref name=Jiranek2002/><ref name=Wang>Wang XD, Bohlscheid JC, Edwards CG. [https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01827.x Fermentative activity and production of volatile compounds by ''Saccharomyces'' grown in synthetic grape juice media deficient in assimilable nitrogen and/or pantothenic acid.] ''J Appl Microbiol.'' 2003;94(3):349–359.</ref><ref name="Tokuyama">Tokuyama T, Kuraishi H, Aida K, Uemura T. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jgam1955/19/6/19_6_439/_pdf Hydrogen sulfide evolution due to pantothenic acid deficiency in the yeast requiring this vitamin, with special reference to the effect of adenosine triphosphate on yeast cysteine desulfhydrase.] ''J Gen Appl Microbiol.'' 1973;19:439–466.</ref><ref name="Bohlscheid"/> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast Nutrition]])
* '''Vitamins''' - Vitamins should be supplemented in wine. Supplementation is not strictly necessary in beer production since [[wort]] typically contains adequate vitamins,<ref>Briggs DE, Hough JS, Stevens R, Young TW. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bHuCdG5VSmUC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&source=bl&ots=8c_VpU3Fs4&sig=ACfU3U1fgQ3aPJpEANWLRXjbv580IWc1Zw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq96Ouqp_oAhUGVa0KHf3bDJoQ6AEwA3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&f=false ''Malting and Brewing Science: Malt and Sweet Wort.''] 2nd ed. Kluwer Academic Plenum Publishers; 1981:92.</ref><ref name=fix/><ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref> although it is potentially helpful. Deficiencies of [[pantothenic acid]] and [[pyridoxine]] (co-factors to SRS enzymes) may cause overproduction of H<sub>2</sub>S — even when adequate [[nitrogen]] is present.<ref name=Jiranek/><ref name=Jiranek2002/><ref name=Wang>Wang XD, Bohlscheid JC, Edwards CG. [https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01827.x Fermentative activity and production of volatile compounds by ''Saccharomyces'' grown in synthetic grape juice media deficient in assimilable nitrogen and/or pantothenic acid.] ''J Appl Microbiol.'' 2003;94(3):349–359.</ref><ref name="Tokuyama">Tokuyama T, Kuraishi H, Aida K, Uemura T. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jgam1955/19/6/19_6_439/_pdf Hydrogen sulfide evolution due to pantothenic acid deficiency in the yeast requiring this vitamin, with special reference to the effect of adenosine triphosphate on yeast cysteine desulfhydrase.] ''J Gen Appl Microbiol.'' 1973;19:439–466.</ref><ref name="Bohlscheid"/> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast Nutrition]])
* '''Nitrogen''' - Supplementing [[yeast-assimilable nitrogen]] (YAN) can help lower sulfide production, but only when there are also adequate co-factors (vitamins) present for the SRS.<ref name="Jiranek"/><ref name="Park">Park SK, Boulton RB, Noble AC. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/51/2/91.short Formation of hydrogen sulfide and glutathione during fermentation of white grape musts.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2000;51(2):91–97.</ref> Otherwise nitrogen supplementation may ''increase'' sulfide production.<ref name="Bohlscheid"/><ref name="Wang"/><ref>Kumar GR, Ramakrishnan V, Bisson LF. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/61/3/365.short Survey of hydrogen sulfide production in wine strains of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2010;61(3):365–371.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref name="Ugliano">Ugliano M, Kolouchova R, Henschke PA. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10295-010-0786-6 Occurrence of hydrogen sulfide in wine and in fermentation: influence of yeast strain and supplementation of yeast available nitrogen.] ''J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol.'' 2011;38:423–429.</ref><ref name="UglianoM"/> There may also be some variability among yeast strains or species with regard to whether increasing nitrogen decreases sulfide formation.<ref name="UglianoM"/><ref>Mendes-Ferreira A, Mendes-Faia A, Leão C. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11282471_Survey_of_Hydrogen_Sulphide_Production_by_Wine_Yeasts Survey of hydrogen sulphide production by wine yeasts.] ''J Food Prot.'' 2002;65(6):1033–1037.</ref> Similar to vitamins, nitrogen supplementation in [[wort]] or beer is not always required, but still may be helpful under certain conditions.<ref name="Duan">Duan WD, Roddick FA, Higgins VJ, Rogers PJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281600914_A_Parallel_Analysis_of_H2S_and_SO2_Formation_by_Brewing_Yeast_in_Response_to_Sulfur-Containing_Amino_Acids_and_Ammonium_Ions A parallel analysis of H2S and SO2 formation by brewing yeast in response to sulfur-containing amino acids and ammonium ions.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2004;62(1):35–41.</ref><ref name="Ferreira">Ferreira IM, Guido LF. [https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/4/2/23/pdf Impact of wort amino acids on beer flavour: a review.] ''Fermentation (Basel).'' 2018;4(23).</ref> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast]])
* '''Nitrogen''' - Supplementing [[yeast-assimilable nitrogen]] (YAN) can help lower sulfide production, but only when there are also adequate co-factors (vitamins) present for the SRS.<ref name="Jiranek"/><ref name="Park">Park SK, Boulton RB, Noble AC. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/51/2/91.short Formation of hydrogen sulfide and glutathione during fermentation of white grape musts.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2000;51(2):91–97.</ref> Otherwise nitrogen supplementation may ''increase'' sulfide production.<ref name="Bohlscheid"/><ref name="Wang"/><ref>Kumar GR, Ramakrishnan V, Bisson LF. [https://www.ajevonline.org/content/61/3/365.short Survey of hydrogen sulfide production in wine strains of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''.] ''Am J Enol Vitic.'' 2010;61(3):365–371.</ref><ref name="Butzke"/><ref name="Ugliano">Ugliano M, Kolouchova R, Henschke PA. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10295-010-0786-6 Occurrence of hydrogen sulfide in wine and in fermentation: influence of yeast strain and supplementation of yeast available nitrogen.] ''J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol.'' 2011;38:423–429.</ref><ref name="UglianoM"/> There may also be some variability among yeast strains or species with regard to whether increasing nitrogen decreases sulfide formation.<ref name="UglianoM"/><ref>Mendes-Ferreira A, Mendes-Faia A, Leão C. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11282471_Survey_of_Hydrogen_Sulphide_Production_by_Wine_Yeasts Survey of hydrogen sulphide production by wine yeasts.] ''J Food Prot.'' 2002;65(6):1033–1037.</ref> Similar to vitamins, nitrogen supplementation in [[wort]] or beer is not always required, but still may be helpful under certain conditions.<ref name="Duan">Duan WD, Roddick FA, Higgins VJ, Rogers PJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281600914_A_Parallel_Analysis_of_H2S_and_SO2_Formation_by_Brewing_Yeast_in_Response_to_Sulfur-Containing_Amino_Acids_and_Ammonium_Ions A parallel analysis of H2S and SO2 formation by brewing yeast in response to sulfur-containing amino acids and ammonium ions.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2004;62(1):35–41.</ref><ref name="Ferreira">Ferreira IM, Guido LF. [https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/4/2/23/pdf Impact of wort amino acids on beer flavour: a review.] ''Fermentation (Basel).'' 2018;4(23).</ref> (See [[yeast#Nutrition|Yeast]])
* '''Yeast strain''' - Low sulfide-producing and/or low nitrogen-requirement yeast strains may be considered.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/> Unfortunately it is not very well known which strains are high or low producers of H<sub>2</sub>S. Scott Labs and Renaissance Yeast have both bred some wine yeast strains specifically to reduce sulfide production.<ref>[https://scottlab.com/h2s-production Understanding the production of hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) during fermentation.] Scott Laboratories. Accessed March 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.thebeveragepeople.com/products/yeast/10-g-fresco-cider-wine-yeast.html 10 g fresco cider yeast - H2S preventing.] The Beverage People. Accessed March 2020.</ref>
* '''Yeast strain''' - Low sulfide-producing and/or low nitrogen-requirement yeast strains may be considered.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/> Unfortunately it is not very well known which strains are high or low producers of H<sub>2</sub>S. Scott Labs and Renaissance Yeast have both bred some wine yeast strains specifically to reduce sulfide production.<ref>[https://scottlab.com/preventing-and-treating-sulfur-off-odors-in-cider Preventing and treating sulfur off-odors in cider.] Scott Laboratories website. 2023. Accessed online May 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.thebeveragepeople.com/products/yeast/10-g-fresco-cider-wine-yeast.html 10 g fresco cider yeast - H2S preventing.] The Beverage People. Accessed March 2020.</ref>
* '''Pitch rate and yeast health''' - Pitch healthy yeast at a good pitch rate to decrease nutrient demand.<ref name="Ferreira"/><ref name="Zoecklein"/> "Shocking" the yeast (rapid changes in growth conditions like temperature or [[pH]]) should be avoided.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/><ref name="OsborneJ">Osborne JP. [https://owri.oregonstate.edu/sites/agsci/files/owri/05_vitnewsletteroct07webversion.pdf Sulfides and mercaptans in wine.] Oregon State University Wine and Grape Research and Extension Newsletter. Published October 2007.</ref> Significant over-pitching may also cause excessive sulfide.<ref name="fart"/><ref name=fix/> Even re-pitching yeast may cause increased production of sulfide.<ref>Thorne RSW. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1968.tb03167.x Some observations on yeast mutation during continuous fermentation.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1968;74:516–524.</ref> (See [[Yeast]])
* '''Pitch rate and yeast health''' - Pitch healthy yeast at a good pitch rate to decrease nutrient demand.<ref name="Ferreira"/><ref name="Zoecklein"/> "Shocking" the yeast (rapid changes in growth conditions like temperature or [[pH]]) should be avoided.<ref name="Jiranek2002"/><ref name="OsborneJ">Osborne JP. [https://owri.oregonstate.edu/sites/agsci/files/owri/05_vitnewsletteroct07webversion.pdf Sulfides and mercaptans in wine.] Oregon State University Wine and Grape Research and Extension Newsletter. Published October 2007.</ref> Significant over-pitching may also cause excessive sulfide.<ref name="fart"/><ref name=fix/> Even re-pitching yeast may cause increased production of sulfide.<ref>Thorne RSW. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1968.tb03167.x Some observations on yeast mutation during continuous fermentation.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1968;74:516–524.</ref> (See [[Yeast]])
* '''Fermentation temperature''' - Generally lower temperatures decrease sulfide liberation, although not necessarily because of decreased production.<ref name="Bohlscheid">Bohlscheid JC,  Osborne JP, Ross CF, Edwards CG. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2010.00365.x Interactive effects of selected nutrients and fermentation temperature on H<sub>2</sub>S production by wine strains of ''Saccharomyces''.] ''J Food Qual.'' 2011;34:51–55.</ref> However each strain has an optimum fermentation temperature to minimize its production, so lower temperature doesn't always mean lower sulfide production.<ref name="Kim">Kim YR, Moon ST, Park SK. [http://ocean.kisti.re.kr/downfile/volume/ksfst1/SPGHB5/2008/v40n2/SPGHB5_2008_v40n2_238.pdf Effects of yeast strains and fermentation temperatures in production of hydrogen sulfide during beer fermentation.] ''Korean J Food Sci Technol.'' 2008;40(2):238–242.</ref> The fermentation temperature should be controlled within the suggested range of the yeast. (See [[Temperature control]])
* '''Fermentation temperature''' - Generally lower temperatures decrease sulfide liberation, although not necessarily because of decreased production.<ref name="Bohlscheid">Bohlscheid JC,  Osborne JP, Ross CF, Edwards CG. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2010.00365.x Interactive effects of selected nutrients and fermentation temperature on H<sub>2</sub>S production by wine strains of ''Saccharomyces''.] ''J Food Qual.'' 2011;34:51–55.</ref> However each strain has an optimum fermentation temperature to minimize its production, so lower temperature doesn't always mean lower sulfide production.<ref name="Kim">Kim YR, Moon ST, Park SK. [http://ocean.kisti.re.kr/downfile/volume/ksfst1/SPGHB5/2008/v40n2/SPGHB5_2008_v40n2_238.pdf Effects of yeast strains and fermentation temperatures in production of hydrogen sulfide during beer fermentation.] ''Korean J Food Sci Technol.'' 2008;40(2):238–242.</ref> The fermentation temperature should be controlled within the suggested range of the yeast. (See [[Temperature control]])
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