Editing Sulfite
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[[Category:Antioxidants]][[Category:Antimicrobials]][[Category:Fermentation products]] | |||
[[File:Sulfite label.jpg|thumb|"Contains Sulfites" label]] | [[File:Sulfite label.jpg|thumb|"Contains Sulfites" label]] | ||
Sulfites (including sulfur dioxide [SO<sub>2</sub>]) are additives used in both wine and beer production for their [[antioxidants|antioxidant]] and anti-microbial effects. These actions make sulfites useful for a variety of tasks including preventing [[oxidation]], inhibiting microbes, quickly [[ | Sulfites (including sulfur dioxide [SO<sub>2</sub>]) are additives used in both wine and beer production for their [[antioxidants|antioxidant]] and anti-microbial effects. These actions make sulfites useful for a variety of tasks including preventing [[oxidation]], inhibiting microbes, quickly removing [[chlorine removal|chlorine compounds]] from tap [[water]], and even [[sanitation|sanitizing]] brewing equipment. Sulfites are also a natural product of yeast [[fermentation]], and therefore they are present in every fermented beverage. Forget everything you thought you knew about sulfites; misinformation is rampant in common online sources and even some books. | ||
Sulfites are NOT directly responsible for the sulfurous/rotten egg/burnt match aroma, as is commonly mistaken — [[hydrogen sulfide]] and/or [[mercaptans|ethyl mercaptan]] are the sources of that off-flavor.<ref>https://www.therealreview.com/2018/07/17/understanding-hydrogen-sulphide-and-sulphur-dioxide/</ref><ref>Williamson, B. [https://williamsonwines.com/recognizing-wine-flaws "Recognizing Wine Flaws."] Williamson Wines. Accessed online March 2020.</ref><ref>Mansfield, AK. [https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/0/7265/files/2016/11/SulfurOffOdor-1vp1vm4.pdf "Kicking up a Stink: Treatment for Sulfur Off-Odors."] ''Cellar Dweller.'' Cornell University - NYSAES. April 2010.</ref> Sulfites should not be confused with [[sulfate]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulfide]]. | Sulfites are NOT directly responsible for the sulfurous/rotten egg/burnt match aroma, as is commonly mistaken — [[hydrogen sulfide]] and/or [[mercaptans|ethyl mercaptan]] are the sources of that off-flavor.<ref>https://www.therealreview.com/2018/07/17/understanding-hydrogen-sulphide-and-sulphur-dioxide/</ref><ref>Williamson, B. [https://williamsonwines.com/recognizing-wine-flaws "Recognizing Wine Flaws."] Williamson Wines. Accessed online March 2020.</ref><ref>Mansfield, AK. [https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/0/7265/files/2016/11/SulfurOffOdor-1vp1vm4.pdf "Kicking up a Stink: Treatment for Sulfur Off-Odors."] ''Cellar Dweller.'' Cornell University - NYSAES. April 2010.</ref> Sulfites should not be confused with [[sulfate]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulfide]]. | ||
==Sources of Sulfite== | ==Sources of Sulfite== | ||
===Products=== | ===Products=== | ||
Sulfite is available in powdered form as sodium metabisulfite and potassium metabisulfite, and also in tablet form with the brand name Campden. These products are not entirely interchangeable, so it's important to note their differences when selecting a product. Neither potassium nor sodium affect the action of the sulfite, but they can have other effects. | Sulfite is available in powdered form as sodium metabisulfite and potassium metabisulfite, and also in tablet form with the brand name Campden. These products are not entirely interchangeable, so it's important to note their differences when selecting a product. Neither potassium nor sodium affect the action of the sulfite, but they can have other effects. | ||
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;Proper Storage | ;Proper Storage | ||
Because sulfite reacts with oxygen, it needs to be stored in an air-tight container with as little air and moisture exposure as possible, otherwise it loses its potency.<ref>[https://www.winemakingtalk.com/threads/potassium-metabisulfite-aging.30741/ "Potassium Metabisulfite Aging."] winemakingtalk.com. 2012.</ref> The shelf life is limited to 6-12 months even with careful storage.<ref>[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Potassium-metabisulfite#section=Stability-Shelf-Life "Potassium metabisulfite."] Pubchem.</ref><ref name=filmtec> | Because sulfite reacts with oxygen, it needs to be stored in an air-tight container with as little air and moisture exposure as possible, otherwise it loses its potency.<ref>[https://www.winemakingtalk.com/threads/potassium-metabisulfite-aging.30741/ "Potassium Metabisulfite Aging."] winemakingtalk.com. 2012.</ref> The shelf life is limited to 6-12 months even with careful storage.<ref>[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Potassium-metabisulfite#section=Stability-Shelf-Life "Potassium metabisulfite."] Pubchem.</ref><ref name=filmtec>https://www.dupont.com/content/dam/dupont/amer/us/en/water-solutions/public/documents/en/45-D01504-en.pdf</ref><ref>[https://blog.eckraus.com/how-to-tell-if-your-potassium-metabisulfite-is-old Kraus, Ed. "How To Tell If Your Potassium Metabisulfite Is Old."] ''Wine Making Blog.''</ref><ref>[https://www.murphyandson.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Potassium-Metabisulphite-TDS-2018.pdf "Technical Information Sheet: Potassium Metabisulphite - Preservatives."] Murphy & Son, Ltd.</ref><ref>[http://www.romil.com/Data/Products/Shelf-Lives/Shelf-Life-SAR.pdf "Recommended Shelf Life."] Romil Pure Chemistry.</ref> The powder becoming clumpy is a sign of exposure to moisture, and therefore degradation. Odor detection/evaluation is NOT a good indicator of product quality because it does not tell you how much degradation has occurred. | ||
===Natural Sulfite=== | ===Natural Sulfite=== | ||
Sulfite is produced naturally by yeast during fermentation, and may be present at the end of fermentation in some amount, usually less than 30ppm although some strains can produce vastly higher amounts.<ref name="Rotter">Rotter, Ben. [http://www.brsquared.org/wine/Articles/SO2/SO2.htm "Sulphur Dioxide."] ''Improved Winemaking.'' 2011.</ref><ref name="Werner">Werner, M., Rauhut, D., Cottereau, P. [https://www.infowine.com/intranet/libretti/libretto7646-01-1.pdf "Yeasts and Natural Production of Sulphites."] ''Internet Journal of Enology and Viticulture.'' 2009 N12/3</ref><ref name=lundmn>Lund MN, Andersen ML. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-2011-0620-01 Detection of Thiol Groups in Beer and Their Correlation with Oxidative Stability.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2011;69(3):163–169.</ref> Yeast produce sulfite by reducing [[sulfate]], although the concentration of sulfate may have only a minor effect on the amount of sulfite produced, depending on the yeast strain. | Sulfite is produced naturally by yeast during fermentation, and may be present at the end of fermentation in some amount, usually less than 30ppm although some strains can produce vastly higher amounts.<ref name="Rotter">Rotter, Ben. [http://www.brsquared.org/wine/Articles/SO2/SO2.htm "Sulphur Dioxide."] ''Improved Winemaking.'' 2011.</ref><ref name="Werner">Werner, M., Rauhut, D., Cottereau, P. [https://www.infowine.com/intranet/libretti/libretto7646-01-1.pdf "Yeasts and Natural Production of Sulphites."] ''Internet Journal of Enology and Viticulture.'' 2009 N12/3</ref><ref name=lundmn>Lund MN, Andersen ML. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-2011-0620-01 Detection of Thiol Groups in Beer and Their Correlation with Oxidative Stability.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2011;69(3):163–169.</ref> Yeast produce sulfite by reducing [[sulfate]], although the concentration of sulfate may have only a minor effect on the amount of sulfite produced, depending on the yeast strain. | ||
Yeast also produce compounds during fermentation that bind to sulfite, decreasing the proportion of free SO<sub>2</sub>. | Yeast also produce compounds during fermentation that bind to sulfite, decreasing the proportion of free SO<sub>2</sub>. | ||
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sulfite is an important antioxidant for improving beer flavor stability, particularly in combination with the phenolic compounds.<ref name=marher>Martinez-Periñan E, Hernández-Artiga MP, Palacios-Santander JM, ElKaoutit M, Naranjo-Rodriguez I, Bellido-Milla D. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814610017346 Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase-Sonogel-Carbon biosensor.] ''Food Chem.'' 2011;127(1):234–239.</ref> There is an interaction between SO2 and some polyphenols that retard the loss of SO2 and consequently, a rapid beer ageing. This interaction seems to be reversible since the free SO2 concentration is similar in fresh and aged beer; however there is a large difference in total SO2 concentration. The polyphenols have an indirect and positive role in beer ageing because they avoid a rapid SO2 lost and by its metal chelating capacity. | sulfite is an important antioxidant for improving beer flavor stability, particularly in combination with the phenolic compounds.<ref name=marher>Martinez-Periñan E, Hernández-Artiga MP, Palacios-Santander JM, ElKaoutit M, Naranjo-Rodriguez I, Bellido-Milla D. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814610017346 Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase-Sonogel-Carbon biosensor.] ''Food Chem.'' 2011;127(1):234–239.</ref> There is an interaction between SO2 and some polyphenols that retard the loss of SO2 and consequently, a rapid beer ageing. This interaction seems to be reversible since the free SO2 concentration is similar in fresh and aged beer; however there is a large difference in total SO2 concentration. The polyphenols have an indirect and positive role in beer ageing because they avoid a rapid SO2 lost and by its metal chelating capacity. | ||
==Sulfite Usage in Wine== | ==Sulfite Usage in Wine== | ||
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Higher levels of CO2 can increase SO2 production.<ref name=kunz/> | Higher levels of CO2 can increase SO2 production.<ref name=kunz/> | ||
Sulfite is typically used in [[low oxygen brewing]] for its ability to actively scavenge oxygen and prevent [[oxidation]].<ref>Rabe, Bryan. [http://www. | Sulfite is typically used in [[low oxygen brewing]] for its ability to actively scavenge oxygen and prevent [[oxidation]].<ref>Rabe, Bryan. [http://www.lowoxygenbrewing.com/ "METHODS OF THE LOW OXYGEN BREWHOUSE."] LowOxygenBrewing.com</ref><ref name="Guido">Guido, Luis. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-90162016000200189#B16 "Sulfites in beer: reviewing regulation, analysis and role."] ''Sci. agric. (Piracicaba, Braz.)'' vol.73 no.2 Piracicaba Mar./Apr. 2016</ref> | ||
Sulfite is not a very effective reducing agent toward disulfides in beer.<ref name=lundm/> This may be explained by the low pH in beer because the disulfide reducing capacity of sulfite has been found to be optimal at pH 7.0 and, therefore, effectively reduced with decreasing pH. | Sulfite is not a very effective reducing agent toward disulfides in beer.<ref name=lundm/> This may be explained by the low pH in beer because the disulfide reducing capacity of sulfite has been found to be optimal at pH 7.0 and, therefore, effectively reduced with decreasing pH. | ||
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Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is a powerful antioxidant, though the levels in beer permitted by regulation (10 mg/l in the USA) are generally insufficient to confer flavor stability; it forms addition compounds with aldehydes and so in beer is mostly bound SO2 . SO2 arises in beer by yeast action and is a variable depending on yeast strain, or arises by addition of KMS in the kettle or post- fermentation. It is an effective flavor preservative at levels somewhat below its flavor threshold of about 25 mg/l.<ref name=lewbam>Lewis MJ, Bamforth CW. Chapter 12: Oxygen. In: Lewis MJ, Bamforth CW, eds. [[Library|''Essays in Brewing Science.'']] Springer; 2006:131–142.</ref> | Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is a powerful antioxidant, though the levels in beer permitted by regulation (10 mg/l in the USA) are generally insufficient to confer flavor stability; it forms addition compounds with aldehydes and so in beer is mostly bound SO2 . SO2 arises in beer by yeast action and is a variable depending on yeast strain, or arises by addition of KMS in the kettle or post- fermentation. It is an effective flavor preservative at levels somewhat below its flavor threshold of about 25 mg/l.<ref name=lewbam>Lewis MJ, Bamforth CW. Chapter 12: Oxygen. In: Lewis MJ, Bamforth CW, eds. [[Library|''Essays in Brewing Science.'']] Springer; 2006:131–142.</ref> | ||
*Martinez-Periñan E, Hernández-Artiga MP, Palacios-Santander JM, El Kaoutita M, Naranjo-Rodriguez I and Bellido-Milla D, Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase–Sonogel–Carbon biosensor. Food Chem 127:234–239 (2011). | *Martinez-Periñan E, Hernández-Artiga MP, Palacios-Santander JM, El Kaoutita M, Naranjo-Rodriguez I and Bellido-Milla D, Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase–Sonogel–Carbon biosensor. Food Chem 127:234–239 (2011). | ||
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====Sulfite at Packaging==== | ====Sulfite at Packaging==== | ||
Sulfite may be added when packaging to help delay oxidation during aging/storage.<ref name="Guido"/><ref>Siqueira, PB, et al. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49599952_O_PROCESSO_DE_FABRICACAO_DA_CERVEJA_E_SEUS_EFEITOS_NA_PRESENCA_DE_POLIFENOIS "O Processo De Fabricação Da Cerveja E Seus Efeitos Na Presença De Polifenóis (The Beer Manufacturing Process And Its Effects On The Presence Of Polyphenols)"] ''Alimentos e Nutrição Araraquara'', vol. 19, no. 4, 2008, pp. 491-498.</ref> Generally, up to 200ppm can be used.<ref name="Kunze">Kunze, Wolfgang. ''Technology Brewing & Malting.'' Edited by Olaf Hendel, 6th English Ed., | Sulfite may be added when packaging to help delay oxidation during aging/storage.<ref name="Guido"/><ref>Siqueira, PB, et al. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49599952_O_PROCESSO_DE_FABRICACAO_DA_CERVEJA_E_SEUS_EFEITOS_NA_PRESENCA_DE_POLIFENOIS "O Processo De Fabricação Da Cerveja E Seus Efeitos Na Presença De Polifenóis (The Beer Manufacturing Process And Its Effects On The Presence Of Polyphenols)"] ''Alimentos e Nutrição Araraquara'', vol. 19, no. 4, 2008, pp. 491-498.</ref> Generally, up to 200ppm can be used.<ref name="Kunze">Kunze, Wolfgang. ''Technology Brewing & Malting.'' Edited by Olaf Hendel, 6th English Ed., VBL Berlin, 2019. p. 509.</ref> It can be used regardless of whether a low-oxygen process of wort production is utilized. Anecdotes suggest that sulfite may even be used when bottle conditioning without any ill effects.<ref>Huolihan, Jake. [http://brulosophy.com/2019/02/11/post-fermentation-oxidation-the-impact-adding-sodium-metabisulfite-at-packaging-has-on-beer-exbeeriment-results/ "Post-Fermentation Oxidation: The Impact Adding Sodium Metabisulfite at Packaging has on Beer."] Brulosophy. 2019</ref> However, other home brewers have noted the formation of an off flavor [[hydrogen sulfide]].<ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/sodium-metabisulfite.682874/ Sodium metabisulfite.] HomebrewTalk forum. 2020. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>http://brulosophy.com/2020/04/06/impact-higher-dosage-rates-of-sodium-metabisulfite-smb-have-on-beer-character-exbeeriment-results/</ref><ref>https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/perceived-flavor-threshold-sodium-metabisulfite-smb-and-potassium-metabisulfite-campden.670439/page-2#post-8908000</ref><ref>https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/sulfur-flavor-in-beer.698775/</ref> Sulfite at packaging is rarely used by home brewers, so experience is limited. | ||
Sulfite added to beer at packaging has a tendency to create sulfury aromas, even at very low concentration.<ref name=niecon>Nielsen H. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1973.tb03517.x The control of oxygen in beer processing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1973;79(2):147–154.</ref> | Sulfite added to beer at packaging has a tendency to create sulfury aromas, even at very low concentration.<ref name=niecon>Nielsen H. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1973.tb03517.x The control of oxygen in beer processing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1973;79(2):147–154.</ref> | ||
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*Acetaldehyde gives wine an oxidized flavor/aroma. When bound with sulfite it is no longer aromatic, so its perception is significantly reduced, resulting in a more fresh tasting wine (or beer).<ref name="Werner" /> | *Acetaldehyde gives wine an oxidized flavor/aroma. When bound with sulfite it is no longer aromatic, so its perception is significantly reduced, resulting in a more fresh tasting wine (or beer).<ref name="Werner" /> | ||
*When SO<sub>2</sub> binds to certain compounds (polyphenols/catechols), it prevents those molecules from reacting with oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide. | *When SO<sub>2</sub> binds to certain compounds (polyphenols/catechols), it prevents those molecules from reacting with oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide. | ||
*Free sulfite ion reacts directly with oxygen (slowly, and this reaction is probably negligible in wine, although it's plausible that this reaction occurs with greater speed at higher pH). However, all forms of SO<sub>2</sub> react readily with hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) and other Reactive Oxygen Species.<ref>https://www. | *Free sulfite ion reacts directly with oxygen (slowly, and this reaction is probably negligible in wine, although it's plausible that this reaction occurs with greater speed at higher pH). However, all forms of SO<sub>2</sub> react readily with hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) and other Reactive Oxygen Species.<ref>https://www.apps.fst.vt.edu/extension/enology/EN/133.html</ref> | ||
Reaction with oxygen (theoretical): | Reaction with oxygen (theoretical): | ||
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*https://www.internationalwinechallenge.com/Canopy-Articles/struck-match-in-chardonnay-whats-it-all-about.html | *https://www.internationalwinechallenge.com/Canopy-Articles/struck-match-in-chardonnay-whats-it-all-about.html | ||
*https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf020756c# | *https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf020756c# | ||
*[http://www. | *[http://www.lowoxygenbrewing.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Sulfites-for-Oxygen-Control-4.pdf Sulfites for Oxygen Control] | ||
*http://www. | *http://www.lowoxygenbrewing.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Sulfites-in-beer-reviewing-regulation-analysis-and-role.pdf Sulfites in Beer: Reviewing Regulation, Analysis and Role | ||
*Kaneda, H., Takashio, M., Osawa, T., Kawakishi, S., and Tamaki, T. (1996) Behavior of sulfites during fermentation and storage of beer, J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 54, 115–120. | *Kaneda, H., Takashio, M., Osawa, T., Kawakishi, S., and Tamaki, T. (1996) Behavior of sulfites during fermentation and storage of beer, J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 54, 115–120. | ||
*Andersen, M. L., Outtrup, H., and Skibsted, L. H. (2000) Potential antioxidants in beer assessed by esr spin trapping, J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 3106–3111. | *Andersen, M. L., Outtrup, H., and Skibsted, L. H. (2000) Potential antioxidants in beer assessed by esr spin trapping, J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 3106–3111. | ||
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==References== | ==References== | ||