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Although malt is the main source of minerals [[extract]]ed into wort and beer, the minerals in [[water]] play a critical role in the brewing process and beer flavor.<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019.</ref><ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref> Arguably the most important feature of the water minerals is their influence on wort and beer [[brewing pH|pH control]].<ref name=hob/> During mashing, bicarbonate ions raise the pH, while calcium and magnesium lower the pH. To illustrate the importance of this fact, consider that the water profiles of different European cities have shaped the development of beer styles suited to achieving the proper mash pH, long before brewers knew of such concepts.<ref name=monmay/> However, it is useless to replicate the water profiles from famous/historical brewing regions because brewers have been modifying their brewing water for centuries.<ref name=water/><ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref> Besides helping to control pH, various ions in the water can have a more direct effect on the beer's flavor and palate characteristics, primarily the levels of sulfate, chloride, sodium, and magnesium. Not only the levels, but the ratio between some of these ions can have effects on the flavor balance of the beer. Ions can also affect other as aspects of beer quality, including fermentation, mash enzyme action, and haze.


Although [[malt]] is the main source of minerals extracted into wort, the levels of minerals in [[water]] also play a substantial role in beer flavor and the brewing process.<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VBL Berlin; 2019.</ref><ref name=monmay/>
== Brewing salts ==
These are the brewing salts we recommend for simple water chemistry adjustments. Calcium chloride and/or calcium sulfate salts are likely to be needed, with magnesium and sodium salts being optional depending on what minerals levels need to be adjusted. Always buy '''food grade''' salts, ideally without additives. Some salts have water incorporated within the crystals, and it's important to be aware of the hydration level so that you can accurately measure the amount of salt.


The ions with a direct effect on flavor are sulfate, chloride, sodium, and magnesium.
{| class="wikitable"
 
! Salt !! Purchase online
Ions can also affect other as aspects of beer quality, including fermentation, mash enzyme action, haze, and pH control.
|-
 
| [[Calcium sulfate]] ||
[[Zinc]] is typically present in water, but usually only in trace amounts that are negligible.
*{{amazon|B07G8QDYP2|Pure (via Amazon)}} - 4 oz, 11 oz, 2 lb, 5 lb, 10 lb
*{{MB|gypsum-calcium-sulfate}} - 2 oz, 1 lb, 5 lb, 50 lb
|-
| [[Calcium chloride]] ||
* {{amazon|B07532VLYX|Pure (via Amazon)}} - 1 lb
* {{MB|calcium-chloride}} - 2 oz, 1 lb, 5 lb, 50 lb
|-
| [[Magnesium chloride]] (optional) ||
*{{amazon|B076ZX3M1Q|Pure (via Amazon)}} - 4 oz, 1 lb, 2 lb, 4 lb
|-
| [[Sodium chloride]] (optional) ||
*{{amazon|B0CHVLXM7R|Diamond Crystal (via Amazon)}} - 8.5 oz, no additives
|}


== Target mineral levels ==
Calcium is one of the most important ions for brewing chemistry, so {{SITENAME}} suggests a minimum of 50 to 70 mg/L. Magnesium is helpful in small amounts to improve fermentation and flavor, although it can be added when pitching yeast instead of being added to the water. Sodium can be used to enhance flavor, and is based on the brewer's preference. Sulfate and chloride affect the dryness to sweetness balance of the beer.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Important ions in brewing water
|+Important ions in brewing water
Line 15: Line 30:
| [[Calcium]] (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) || 50 to 150 mg/L || Calcium improves mashing enzyme activity, beneficially lowers pH, improves protein coagulation, lowers oxalate, and improves yeast flocculation. Calcium does not provide flavor.
| [[Calcium]] (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) || 50 to 150 mg/L || Calcium improves mashing enzyme activity, beneficially lowers pH, improves protein coagulation, lowers oxalate, and improves yeast flocculation. Calcium does not provide flavor.
|-
|-
| [[Magnesium]] (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) || 5 to 40 mg/L || Magnesium beneficially lowers pH, improves fermentation performance, increases hop utilization, and imparts a sour and bitter astringency to beer.
| [[Magnesium]] (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) || 0 to 40 mg/L || Magnesium beneficially lowers pH, improves fermentation performance, increases hop utilization, and imparts a sour and bitter astringency to beer.
|-
|-
| [[Sodium]] (Na<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 120 mg/L || Sodium improves mouthfeel and fullness, rounds out flavors, and accentuates the sweetness of malt.
| [[Sodium]] (Na<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 120 mg/L || Sodium improves mouthfeel and fullness, rounds out flavors, and accentuates the sweetness of malt.
<!--
|-
|-
| [[Potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 200 mg/L || Potassium is required for fermentation, but the malt provides more than enough to support the yeast. Potassium does not provide flavor unless the level is excessive.
| [[Potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 200 mg/L || Potassium is required for fermentation, but the malt provides more than enough to support the yeast. Potassium does not provide flavor unless the level is excessive.
-->
|-
|-
| [[Chloride]] (Cl<sup>−</sup>) || 0 to 250 mg/L || Chloride provides a roundness, fullness, and a sweet quality to the malt character.
| [[Chloride]] (Cl<sup>−</sup>) || 0 to 250 mg/L || Chloride provides a roundness, fullness, and accentuates the sweetness of the malt.
|-
|-
| [[Sulfate]] (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) || 10 to 500 mg/L || Sulfate accentuates hop bitterness, and adds dryness and astringency, lending a more crisp finish.
| [[Sulfate]] (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) || 10 to 500 mg/L || Sulfate accentuates hop bitterness, and adds dryness and astringency, lending a more crisp finish.
<!--
|-
|-
| [[Bicarbonate]] (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) || Variable, based on pH || Bicarbonate is ion responsible for alkalinity — it raises pH during mashing, etc. Bicarbonate does not provide flavor.
| [[Bicarbonate]] (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) || Variable, based on pH || Bicarbonate is ion responsible for alkalinity — it raises pH during mashing, etc. Bicarbonate does not provide flavor.
|-
-->
| [[Iron]] (Fe), [[Copper]] (Cu), [[Manganese]] (Mn) || None || These [[transition metals]] catalyze [[oxidation]] and therefore their levels should be as low as possible.
|}
|}


== Sulfate to chloride ratio ==
Before we jump in to creating a water profile for a beer, we need to understand the effect of the sulfate-to-chloride ratio. From the table above, it can be seen that the flavor effects of chloride and sulfate are somewhat antagonistic. The ratio of sulfate to chloride is said to greatly influence the hoppy-to-malty or dryness-to-sweetness balance of the beer.<ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref><ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref><ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref> However, the actual amounts of each ion clearly also still play a role. Authors suggest a range of useful ratios, from 9 to 0.5.<ref name=water>Palmer J, Kaminski C. [[Library|''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'']] Brewers Publications; 2013.</ref><ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref> In general, a higher sulfate balance is desired in hoppy ales, while a higher chloride balance is better malt-focused beers. This is merely a suggestion; ultimately it's up to the brewer to decide the bitter-sweet balance as part of a particular beer recipe.


== Brewing salt calculator ==
{{SITENAME}} makes it easy to calculate the amount of salts required to hit your target ion levels and sulfate:chloride ratio.
{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wikitable" style="width:100%"
|+ style="text-align:left;" | Instructions
|-
|
# Enter your total volume of water to be treated, selecting the correct units.
# Enter your source water minerals. These are from your [[water report]], or all zeros for [[water sources|RO water]].
# Enter your target levels of calcium, magnesium, and sodium. The default targets are acceptable for general purposes.
# Slide the bar between sulfate and chloride to achieve your desired balance.
# Select the salts you will be using (if applicable).
|}


 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;margin-top:20px;"
 
! style="text-align:left;" | Salt addition calculator
 
----
 
The principal ions are the cations – calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium – and the anions – sulfate, nitrate, phosphate, chlorides, and silicate. The minor ions are iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. The level of toxic metals is limited by law. Cereals, water, hops, and adjuncts are the main sources of the minerals present in beer, while yeast, industrial processing and the containers contribute to a lesser extent.<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref>
 
The water profiles of different European cities has influences the development of beer styles suited to achieving the proper mash pH, long before brewers knew of such concepts.<ref name=monmay/>
 
Most of the salts in beer originate from the [[barley]]. A 12°P beer will contribute about 1200 mg/L of minerals.<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VBL Berlin; 2019.</ref> However, minerals in the water still have a significant impact on flavor.
 
Water pH, in and of itself, does not mean anything to brewers.<ref name=lewsoft>Lewis A. [https://byo.com/mr-wizard/low-water-softeners-brewing/ The low down on water softeners for brewing.] Brew Your Own website. 2020. Accessed online 2024.</ref> The pH values that matter in wort production are mash pH (pH 5.2–5.4 is the ideal range), wort pH flowing from the mash tun (anything from pH 5.2–5.8 is great, and pH 6.0 for the last runnings is tolerable), and wort pH before the boil (I like pH 5.2–5.4, and nothing greater than pH 5.6). If you find that you need to acidify mash or wort, lactic acid or phosphoric acids are easy to use. You can also add calcium since it reacts with malt phosphates and amino acids to decrease mash and wort pH. And if you need to bump the pH up, baking soda is really the easiest thing to add. Don’t worry about the sodium since you are really not adding much at all.
 
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Ion contents in 10°P wort and beer with distilled water<ref name=water/>
! Ion
! Wort (mg/L)
! Beer (mg/L)
|-
|Na<sup>+</sup>||10||12
|-
|K<sup>+</sup>||380||355
|-
|Ca<sup>2+</sup>||35||33
|-
|Mg<sup>2+</sup>||70||65
|-
|Zn<sup>2+</sup>||0.17||0
|-
|Cu<sup>2+</sup>||0.15||0.12
|-
|Fe<sup>3+</sup>||0.11||0.07
|-
|Cl<sup>-</sup>||125||130
|-
|SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>||5||15
|-
|-
|PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> (free)||550||389
|
|-
{{#Widget:water-minerals}}
|PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> (total)||830||604
|}
|}


Also see ''Brewing Science and Practice'' page 164 for another example of ionic content in beer.
This calculator does NOT adjust the water for pH control. Use these results in combination with your mash pH calculation software to determine which additional acid/base modifiers will be needed.
 
Depending on the malts used, a standard 12°P gravity wort has levels of around 100-270 μg/L iron, 20-400 μg/L copper and 80-150 μg/L manganese with 100-5000 μg/L of the beneficial zinc. Calcium and magnesium - two other beneficial brewing metals found in wort - were not screened in our trials. Neither appear to substantially chelate out of solution (19) and they are also present in wort at concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than the detrimental iron, copper and manganese ions (namely, 50-90 mg/L for Mg and 15-35 mg/L for Ca) (31).<ref name=merkun>Mertens T, Kunz T, Wietstock PC, Methner FJ. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jib.673 Complexation of transition metals by chelators added during mashing and impact on beer stability.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2021;127(4):345–357.</ref>
 
Requirements for brew water<ref name=eumann>Eumann M, Schildbach S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2012;118:12–21.</ref>
Parameter Limits
Fe (ppm) <0.1
Mn (ppm) <0.05
Turbidity (NTU) 0.0–0.5
Ca2+ (ppm) 80/70–90
Mg2+ (ppm) 0–10
Na+ (ppm) 0–20
m-Alkalinity (ppm CaCO3) 25/10–50
Residual alkalinity according to Kolbach (ppm CaCO3) <0
Cl- (ppm) 0–50
SO4 2- (ppm) 30–150
NO3- (ppm) 0–25
NO2- (ppm) <0.1
KMnO4 (ppm O2 per L) <5
pH 5.0–9.5
SiO2 (ppm) 0–25
THMs (ppb) <10
Total H2S (ppb) <5
 
 
In beer most of the minerals originate from the barley. About 75% derives from the malt, while the remaining 25% originates from the water. The minerals include about 35% phosphates, about 25% silicates, and about 20% potassium salts.<ref name=monmay/>
 
Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb2+) and tin (Sn2+), can be inhibitory to certain yeast enzymes and can induce haze formation.2<ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref>
 
Sulfate-to-Cloride ratio<br>
The ratio of sulfate to chloride is said to greatly influence the hoppy-to-malty or dryness-to-fullness balance of the beer. However, the actually amounts of each ion clearly also still play a role.
The useful range of the ratio is 9 to 0.5, mainly for ales. Lagers tend to benefit from low levels of sulfate regardless of the ratio.<ref name=water>Palmer J, Kaminski C. [[Library|''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'']] Brewers Publications; 2013.</ref>
 
Comrie<ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref> (1967) suggests sulfate to chloride of 2:1 for pale ales and 2:3 for mild ales.
 
Many authors (e.g., see references 1, 19, 22, 23) refer to the importance of the chloride to sulfate balance. From the previous discussion regarding chloride and sulfate, it can be seen that the relative flavor effects of these ions are somewhat antagonistic. In an attempt to quantify this point, it has been shown16 that increasing the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio from 1:1 to 2:1 (on a mg/L basis) achieved increased taste panel scores for body and sweetness, with a commensurate reduction in drying, bitter, and metallic flavors. In contrast, when the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio was changed from 1:1 to 1:2, the increased sulfate content achieved reduced body and sweetness but increased bitterness and drying flavors. These effects are repeatable at different absolute concentrations of chloride and sulfate. It appears that, in many cases, it is the relative ratio of the two ions that has the major flavor influence, often irrespective of the accompanying cations.<ref name=hob/>
 
The key influence of chloride on beer flavor is somewhat antagonistic to sulfate, producing smoothness and body effects.<ref name=hob/>
 
The ratio of chloride to sulfate helps to regulate the saline/bitter character of beer.<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref>
 
The ratio between chloride and [[sulfate]] is thought to be important with regard to regulating the palatability of the beer.<ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref>
 
Water profiles from famous/historical brewing regions are useless because brewers have been modifying their brewing water for centuries.<ref name=water/><ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref>
 
Inorganic ions are required in enzymic and structural roles. Enzymic functions include the
following:<ref name=hob/>
* As the catalytic center of an enzyme (e.g., Zn2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Co2+)
* As activators of enzyme activity (e.g., Mg2+)
* As metal co-enzymes (e.g., K+)
* As cofactors in redox pigments (e.g., Fe3+, Cu2+)
Structural roles involve neutralization of electrostatic forces present in various cellular anionic
molecules. These include:<ref name=hob/>
* K+ and Mg2+ ions bound to DNA, RNA, proteins, and polyphosphates
* Ca2+ and Mg2+ combined with the negatively charged structural membrane
phospholipids
* Ca2+ complexed with cell wall phosphate ions
 
Arguably, control of wort and beer pH is the single most important feature of the influence of inorganic ions on beer quality and flavor.<ref name=hob/>
 
Buy a pH meter. Test strips are for amateurs. If you are serious about brewing good beer, then you need to be serious about measuring your results and reaching your goals.
 
Bench trials for learning flavor effects?
 
An all-malt pale lager wort (12° P) should contain about 550 mg/1. potassium, 30 mg/1. sodium, 35 mg/1. calcium, 100 mg/1. magnesium, 0.10 mg/1. copper, 0.10 mg/1. iron, 0.15 mg/1. manganese, and 0.15 mg/1. zinc.<ref name=holpie>Holzmann A, Piendl A. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-35-0001 Malt modification and mashing conditions as factors influencing the minerals of wort.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 1977;35(1):1–8.</ref>
 
 
*https://www.brunwater.com/articles/a-better-way-to-store-and-use-calcium-chloride


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Water]]
* [[Water]]
* [[Brewing pH]]


== References ==
== References ==
[[category:brewing chemistry]][[category:brewing ingredients]]
[[category:brewing chemistry]]
{{#seo:
|title=Adjust Water Minerals for Optimal Brewing Chemistry and Beer Flavor
|description=The minerals in brewing water play a critical role in mashing and boiling chemistry, and contribute to the flavor and mouthfeel of beer. Brewing Forward's salt calculator tells you the amount of each salt to add to the water based on your desired mineral levels and sulfate vs chloride balance.
}}

Latest revision as of 12:49, 5 June 2024

Although malt is the main source of minerals extracted into wort and beer, the minerals in water play a critical role in the brewing process and beer flavor.[1][2] Arguably the most important feature of the water minerals is their influence on wort and beer pH control.[3] During mashing, bicarbonate ions raise the pH, while calcium and magnesium lower the pH. To illustrate the importance of this fact, consider that the water profiles of different European cities have shaped the development of beer styles suited to achieving the proper mash pH, long before brewers knew of such concepts.[2] However, it is useless to replicate the water profiles from famous/historical brewing regions because brewers have been modifying their brewing water for centuries.[4][5] Besides helping to control pH, various ions in the water can have a more direct effect on the beer's flavor and palate characteristics, primarily the levels of sulfate, chloride, sodium, and magnesium. Not only the levels, but the ratio between some of these ions can have effects on the flavor balance of the beer. Ions can also affect other as aspects of beer quality, including fermentation, mash enzyme action, and haze.

Brewing salts[edit]

These are the brewing salts we recommend for simple water chemistry adjustments. Calcium chloride and/or calcium sulfate salts are likely to be needed, with magnesium and sodium salts being optional depending on what minerals levels need to be adjusted. Always buy food grade salts, ideally without additives. Some salts have water incorporated within the crystals, and it's important to be aware of the hydration level so that you can accurately measure the amount of salt.

Salt Purchase online
Calcium sulfate
Calcium chloride
Magnesium chloride (optional)
Sodium chloride (optional)

Target mineral levels[edit]

Calcium is one of the most important ions for brewing chemistry, so Brewing Forward suggests a minimum of 50 to 70 mg/L. Magnesium is helpful in small amounts to improve fermentation and flavor, although it can be added when pitching yeast instead of being added to the water. Sodium can be used to enhance flavor, and is based on the brewer's preference. Sulfate and chloride affect the dryness to sweetness balance of the beer.

Important ions in brewing water
Ion  Desired level  Characteristics
Calcium (Ca2+) 50 to 150 mg/L Calcium improves mashing enzyme activity, beneficially lowers pH, improves protein coagulation, lowers oxalate, and improves yeast flocculation. Calcium does not provide flavor.
Magnesium (Mg2+) 0 to 40 mg/L Magnesium beneficially lowers pH, improves fermentation performance, increases hop utilization, and imparts a sour and bitter astringency to beer.
Sodium (Na+) 0 to 120 mg/L Sodium improves mouthfeel and fullness, rounds out flavors, and accentuates the sweetness of malt.
Chloride (Cl−) 0 to 250 mg/L Chloride provides a roundness, fullness, and accentuates the sweetness of the malt.
Sulfate (SO42−) 10 to 500 mg/L Sulfate accentuates hop bitterness, and adds dryness and astringency, lending a more crisp finish.

Sulfate to chloride ratio[edit]

Before we jump in to creating a water profile for a beer, we need to understand the effect of the sulfate-to-chloride ratio. From the table above, it can be seen that the flavor effects of chloride and sulfate are somewhat antagonistic. The ratio of sulfate to chloride is said to greatly influence the hoppy-to-malty or dryness-to-sweetness balance of the beer.[3][6][7] However, the actual amounts of each ion clearly also still play a role. Authors suggest a range of useful ratios, from 9 to 0.5.[4][8] In general, a higher sulfate balance is desired in hoppy ales, while a higher chloride balance is better malt-focused beers. This is merely a suggestion; ultimately it's up to the brewer to decide the bitter-sweet balance as part of a particular beer recipe.

Brewing salt calculator[edit]

Brewing Forward makes it easy to calculate the amount of salts required to hit your target ion levels and sulfate:chloride ratio.

Instructions
  1. Enter your total volume of water to be treated, selecting the correct units.
  2. Enter your source water minerals. These are from your water report, or all zeros for RO water.
  3. Enter your target levels of calcium, magnesium, and sodium. The default targets are acceptable for general purposes.
  4. Slide the bar between sulfate and chloride to achieve your desired balance.
  5. Select the salts you will be using (if applicable).
Salt addition calculator

Ca2+Mg2+Na+SO42−Cl−
Source minerals
Target cations
Adjusted water
Target balance Sulfate Chloride

This calculator does NOT adjust the water for pH control. Use these results in combination with your mash pH calculation software to determine which additional acid/base modifiers will be needed.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. Technology Brewing & Malting. 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019.
  2. ↑ a b Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. Chapter 34: Minerals in beer. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:359–365.
  3. ↑ a b Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. Handbook of Brewing. 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.
  4. ↑ a b Palmer J, Kaminski C. Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers. Brewers Publications; 2013.
  5. ↑ Fix G. Principles of Brewing Science. 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.
  6. ↑ Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. Brewing Science and Practice. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.
  7. ↑ Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. The Craft Brewing Handbook. Woodhead Publishing; 2019.
  8. ↑ Comrie AA. Brewing liquor—a review. J Inst Brew. 1967;73(4):335–346.
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