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{{In progress}} | {{In progress}} [[Category:Brewing ingredients]] [[Category:Brewing chemistry]] | ||
[[File:Sulfite label.jpg|thumb|"Contains Sulfites" label]] | |||
[[File:Sulfite label.jpg| | Sulfites (including sulfur dioxide [SO<sub>2</sub>]) are additives used in both wine and beer production for their [[antioxidants|antioxidant]] and anti-microbial effects. These actions make sulfites useful for a variety of tasks including preventing [[oxidation]], inhibiting microbes, quickly removing [[chlorine removal|chlorine compounds]] from tap [[water]], and even [[sanitation|sanitizing]] brewing equipment. Sulfites are also a natural product of yeast [[fermentation]], and therefore they are present in every fermented beverage. Forget everything you thought you knew about sulfites; misinformation is rampant in common online sources and even some books. | ||
Sulfites are NOT directly responsible for the sulfurous/rotten egg/burnt match aroma, as is commonly mistaken — [[hydrogen sulfide]] and/or [[mercaptans|ethyl mercaptan]] are the sources of that off-flavor.<ref>https://www.therealreview.com/2018/07/17/understanding-hydrogen-sulphide-and-sulphur-dioxide/</ref><ref>Williamson, B. [https://williamsonwines.com/recognizing-wine-flaws "Recognizing Wine Flaws."] Williamson Wines. Accessed online March 2020.</ref><ref>Mansfield, AK. [https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/0/7265/files/2016/11/SulfurOffOdor-1vp1vm4.pdf "Kicking up a Stink: Treatment for Sulfur Off-Odors."] ''Cellar Dweller.'' Cornell University - NYSAES. April 2010.</ref> Sulfites should not be confused with [[sulfate]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulfide]]. | |||
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas that is 85 g L−1 soluble in water at 25 °C and has a boiling point of −10 °C.170 In solution, it undergoes equilibrium reactions with SO2.nH2O, the bisulfite ion (HSO3 −), and the sulfite ion (SO3 −). At beer pH, which is generally 3.8−4.4, the predominant form is the bisulfite ion.158,171 Because all of these species can be converted to, measured as, and reported in terms of SO2, they are often generalized under “SO2” or “sulfites”.<ref name=baedec>Baert JJ, De Clippeleer J, Hughes PS, De Cooman L, Aerts G. [https://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Baert-Aldehyden.pdf On the origin of free and bound staling aldehydes in beer.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2012;60(46):11449–11472.</ref> | |||
The use of radical scavengers could improve beer flavor stability.<ref name=Zufall>Zufall C, Tyrell Th. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2008.tb00318.x The influence of heavy metal ions on beer flavour stability.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2008;114(2):134–142.</ref> Sulfite has been identified as an essential antioxidant in beer, which has been ascribed to its ability to remove H2O2.<ref name=lundmn/> | |||
==Sources of Sulfite== | ==Sources of Sulfite== | ||
the major source of sulfite in beer is the reduction of sulfate in water and grist by the yeast metabolism (endogenous SO2). The SO2 content is also increased by the addition of sulfiting agents (exogenous SO2) such as SO2 (E220), Na2SO3 (E221), NaHSO3 (E222), Na2S2O5 (E223), K2S2O5 (E224), CaSO3 (E226), Ca(HSO3)2, (E227), and KHSO3 (E228) before beer packaging.115,158,171−173 According to Johannesen et al.,175 no difference could be noticed between the (E)-2-nonenal concentrations of forced-aged beer with sulfite derived from endogenous or exogenous origin.175<ref name=baedec/> | |||
===Products=== | ===Products=== | ||
Sulfite is available in powdered form as sodium metabisulfite and potassium metabisulfite, and also in tablet form with the brand name Campden. These products are not entirely interchangeable, so it's important to note their differences when selecting a product. Neither potassium nor sodium affect the action of the sulfite, but they can have other effects. | Sulfite is available in powdered form as sodium metabisulfite and potassium metabisulfite, and also in tablet form with the brand name Campden. These products are not entirely interchangeable, so it's important to note their differences when selecting a product. Neither potassium nor sodium affect the action of the sulfite, but they can have other effects. | ||
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===Natural Sulfite=== | ===Natural Sulfite=== | ||
Sulfite comprises an intermediate product of cysteine and methionine biosynthesis, and its excretion by yeast proceeds in four stages22,171,175,188,189 (Figure 20). In stage 1, methionine and threonine present in wort inhibit and repress certain enzymes, preventing sulfite excretion. During the second stage, the pathway is switched on, but sulfite excretion remains low due to a high demand for sulfur-containing amino acids. In stage 3, yeast growth ceases, which lowers this amino acid demand. However, extract, and thus energy, is still available, which favors sulfite production. Sulfite excretion commences due to an oversupply in the metabolism. The alcohol level at this moment is about 1.5% w/w.75,190 In the fourth stage, the extract is depleted, sulfate reduction stops, and sulfite excretion stops accordingly.189 The extent of sulfite excretion depends on the yeast strain used; lager strains often produce more SO2 than ale strains, for example.191 It has been found that beer produced with a yeast strain with augmented sulfite secretion shows better flavor stability.192 Furthermore, higher sulfate supply to the yeast, higher original wort gravity, higher wort clarity, higher fermentation temperature, lower pitching rate, and lower wort oxygenation all result in higher SO2 contents.158,171,189,190 In general, sulfite secretion is inversely proportional to yeast growth, independent of the applied parameters.189<ref name=baedec/> | |||
Sulfite is produced naturally by yeast during fermentation, and may be present at the end of fermentation in some amount, usually less than 30ppm although some strains can produce vastly higher amounts.<ref name="Rotter">Rotter, Ben. [http://www.brsquared.org/wine/Articles/SO2/SO2.htm "Sulphur Dioxide."] ''Improved Winemaking.'' 2011.</ref><ref name="Werner">Werner, M., Rauhut, D., Cottereau, P. [https://www.infowine.com/intranet/libretti/libretto7646-01-1.pdf "Yeasts and Natural Production of Sulphites."] ''Internet Journal of Enology and Viticulture.'' 2009 N12/3</ref><ref name=lundmn>Lund MN, Andersen ML. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-2011-0620-01 Detection of Thiol Groups in Beer and Their Correlation with Oxidative Stability.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2011;69(3):163–169.</ref> Yeast produce sulfite by reducing [[sulfate]], although the concentration of sulfate may have only a minor effect on the amount of sulfite produced, depending on the yeast strain. | Sulfite is produced naturally by yeast during fermentation, and may be present at the end of fermentation in some amount, usually less than 30ppm although some strains can produce vastly higher amounts.<ref name="Rotter">Rotter, Ben. [http://www.brsquared.org/wine/Articles/SO2/SO2.htm "Sulphur Dioxide."] ''Improved Winemaking.'' 2011.</ref><ref name="Werner">Werner, M., Rauhut, D., Cottereau, P. [https://www.infowine.com/intranet/libretti/libretto7646-01-1.pdf "Yeasts and Natural Production of Sulphites."] ''Internet Journal of Enology and Viticulture.'' 2009 N12/3</ref><ref name=lundmn>Lund MN, Andersen ML. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-2011-0620-01 Detection of Thiol Groups in Beer and Their Correlation with Oxidative Stability.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2011;69(3):163–169.</ref> Yeast produce sulfite by reducing [[sulfate]], although the concentration of sulfate may have only a minor effect on the amount of sulfite produced, depending on the yeast strain. | ||
Yeast also produce compounds during fermentation that bind to sulfite, decreasing the proportion of free SO<sub>2</sub>. | Yeast also produce compounds during fermentation that bind to sulfite, decreasing the proportion of free SO<sub>2</sub>. | ||
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Sulphite is considered to prevent the oxidative staling. of beer17,31,34. Sulphite is produced by yeast during fermentation4,33.<ref name=mikhra>Mikyška A, Hrabak M, Hašková D, Šrogl J. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2002.tb00128.x The role of malt and hop polyphenols in beer quality, flavour and haze stability.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2002;108(1):78–85.</ref> | Sulphite is considered to prevent the oxidative staling. of beer17,31,34. Sulphite is produced by yeast during fermentation4,33.<ref name=mikhra>Mikyška A, Hrabak M, Hašková D, Šrogl J. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2002.tb00128.x The role of malt and hop polyphenols in beer quality, flavour and haze stability.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2002;108(1):78–85.</ref> | ||
Dufour (13) found sulfite levels to be dependent on total fermenting biomass that decreased with the rate of fermentation by the yeast.<ref name=pasame>Pascoe HM, Ames JM, Chandra S. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-61-0203 Critical stages of the brewing process for changes in antioxidant activity and levels of phenolic compounds in ale.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 2003;61(4):203–209.</ref> | |||
studies have shown that the carbohydrate addition prior fermentation leads to an increase of the osmotic pressure resulting in a stronger SO2-formation during fermentation. This fact should have a positive effect on the oxidative beer stability because sulphur dioxide can act as an significant antioxidant in the beer matrices by scavenging ROS and masking stale flavour by binding staling aldehydes as sulphite carbonyl complexes [4, 9, 15, 28, 45–48, 50, 55, 61–63].<ref name=carbs>Kunz T, Brandt NO, Seewald T, Methner FJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281405909_Carbohydrates_Addition_during_Brewing_-_Effects_on_Oxidative_Processes_and_Formation_of_Specific_Ageing_Compounds Carbohydrates addition during brewing – effects on oxidative processes and formation of specific ageing compounds.] ''BrewingScience.'' 2015;68(7):78–92.</ref> | |||
In beer containing sulfites, free radicals are generated after a definite time period, called the "lagtime".<ref name=calcol>Callemien D, Collin S. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87559120903157954 Structure, organoleptic properties, quantification methods, and stability of phenolic compounds in beer—a review.] ''Food Rev Int.'' 2009;26(1):1–84.</ref> | |||
Brighter worts allow increased levels of SO 2 production by yeast.<ref name=bamlen>Bamforth CW, Lentini A. The flavor instability of beer. In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Beer: A Quality Perspective.'']] Academic Press; 2009:85–109.</ref> | |||
sulfite is an important antioxidant for improving beer flavor stability, particularly in combination with the phenolic compounds.<ref name=marher>Martinez-Periñan E, Hernández-Artiga MP, Palacios-Santander JM, ElKaoutit M, Naranjo-Rodriguez I, Bellido-Milla D. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814610017346 Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase-Sonogel-Carbon biosensor.] ''Food Chem.'' 2011;127(1):234–239.</ref> There is an interaction between SO2 and some polyphenols that retard the loss of SO2 and consequently, a rapid beer ageing. This interaction seems to be reversible since the free SO2 concentration is similar in fresh and aged beer; however there is a large difference in total SO2 concentration. The polyphenols have an indirect and positive role in beer ageing because they avoid a rapid SO2 lost and by its metal chelating capacity. | |||
The aldehyde-sulfite adducts that may be formed from saturated aldehydes in beer are most likely not active antioxidants but may act simply as reservoirs of sulfite, whereas R,â-unsaturated aldehydes are able to bind sulfite irreversibly (Dufour et al., 1999; Nyborg et al., 1999).<ref name=andout>Andersen ML, Outtrup H, Skibsted LH. [https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/jf000354+Potential antioxidants in beer assessed by ESR spin trapping.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2000;48(8):3106–3111.</ref> | |||
4ppm sulfite is sufficient to act as an antioxidant, delaying oxidation.<ref name=andout/> | |||
Sulfite is a clearly a unique antioxidant in beer. It is formed naturally by the yeast during the fermentation, and according to the present study, it is the most efficient antioxidant that is naturally present in beer (Ilett, 1995; Kaneda et al., 1996). Beer lacking sulfite was found to have no lag phase for formation of radicals and accordingly no defense against the oxidative radical chain reactions. Sulfite either added as such or bound by carbonyl compounds as 1-hydroxysulfonates resulted in a lag phase. The lability of such carbonyl adducts ensure that the antioxidative effect of sulfite is not reduced.<ref name=andout/> | |||
==Sulfite Usage in Wine== | ==Sulfite Usage in Wine== | ||
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Sulfites play a significant role in masking stale flavor, and in protecting beer from oxidation and slightly from microbial spoilage [7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 27, 30, 38, 47, 52, 54, 55]. There are two factors that promote the positive effect of SO2 on the flavor stability of beer. SO2 or sulfite (HSO3-) is a reactive antioxidant, which reduces oxygen and therefore causes a better endogenous antioxidative potential [2, 18, 30, 34, 35, 46, 54, 55, 56]. Furthermore SO2 is building reversible complexes with carbonyls which cause a masking effect since these carbonyls are mainly ageing flavour related compounds [1, 2, 5, 11, 14, 23, 26, 30, 39, 40, 52].<ref name=kunz>Kunz T, Reinhardt Ch, Eon-Jeong L, Dörr T, Radowski A, Methner FJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265959046_Impact_of_Fermentable_and_Non-Fermentable_Carbohydrates_on_the_Sweetness_Improve-_ment_of_Palate_Fullness_and_SO_2_-Content_in_Beer Impact of fermentable and non fermentable carbohydrates on the sweetness, improvement of palate fullness and SO<sub>2</sub>-content in beer.] ''BrewingScience.'' 2012;65(11):140–149.</ref> | Sulfites play a significant role in masking stale flavor, and in protecting beer from oxidation and slightly from microbial spoilage [7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 27, 30, 38, 47, 52, 54, 55]. There are two factors that promote the positive effect of SO2 on the flavor stability of beer. SO2 or sulfite (HSO3-) is a reactive antioxidant, which reduces oxygen and therefore causes a better endogenous antioxidative potential [2, 18, 30, 34, 35, 46, 54, 55, 56]. Furthermore SO2 is building reversible complexes with carbonyls which cause a masking effect since these carbonyls are mainly ageing flavour related compounds [1, 2, 5, 11, 14, 23, 26, 30, 39, 40, 52].<ref name=kunz>Kunz T, Reinhardt Ch, Eon-Jeong L, Dörr T, Radowski A, Methner FJ. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265959046_Impact_of_Fermentable_and_Non-Fermentable_Carbohydrates_on_the_Sweetness_Improve-_ment_of_Palate_Fullness_and_SO_2_-Content_in_Beer Impact of fermentable and non fermentable carbohydrates on the sweetness, improvement of palate fullness and SO<sub>2</sub>-content in beer.] ''BrewingScience.'' 2012;65(11):140–149.</ref> | ||
A multitude of studies have described specific fermentation parameters that affect the sulphite formation by yeast in wine and beer production. Thereby, the wort aeration plays a key role during fermentation. But also the effect of pitching rate, temperature and pressure on the level of sulphur dioxide formation has been investigated by different research groups [6, 15, 34, 36]. The results of these investigations are in line with Kaneda et al. [23, 26, 43], | A multitude of studies have described specific fermentation parameters that affect the sulphite formation by yeast in wine and beer production. Thereby, the wort aeration plays a key role during fermentation. But also the effect of pitching rate, temperature and pressure on the level of sulphur dioxide formation has been investigated by different research groups [6, 15, 34, 36]. The results of these investigations are in line with Kaneda et al. [23, 26, 43], who showed that the wort fermentation conditions are influencing the sulfite level and therefore also the flavor stability of the finished beer by inhibiting radical reactions and oxidative processes. Furthermore the sulfite is able to mask staling fl avour by formation of sulphite complexes with ageing flavor related carbonyls [1, 2, 13, 34]. In this context Narziss et al. [41] and Foster et al. [18] recommended that sulphur dioxide content in packaged beer of 8–9/6-7 mg/L generated by yeast is most appropriate for the flavor stability of beer.<ref name=kunz/> | ||
who showed that the wort fermentation conditions are influencing the sulfite level and therefore also the flavor stability of the finished beer by inhibiting radical reactions and oxidative processes. Furthermore the sulfite is able to mask staling fl avour by formation of sulphite complexes with ageing | |||
[1, 2, 13, 34]. In this context Narziss et al. [41] and Foster et al. [18] recommended that sulphur dioxide content in packaged beer | |||
of 8–9/6-7 mg/L generated by yeast is most appropriate for the | |||
Higher levels of CO2 can increase SO2 production.<ref name=kunz/> | Higher levels of CO2 can increase SO2 production.<ref name=kunz/> | ||
Sulfite is typically used in [[low oxygen brewing]] for its ability to actively scavenge oxygen and prevent [[oxidation]].<ref>Rabe, Bryan. [http://www. | Sulfite is typically used in [[low oxygen brewing]] for its ability to actively scavenge oxygen and prevent [[oxidation]].<ref>Rabe, Bryan. [http://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/ "METHODS OF THE LOW OXYGEN BREWHOUSE."] LowOxygenBrewing.com</ref><ref name="Guido">Guido, Luis. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-90162016000200189#B16 "Sulfites in beer: reviewing regulation, analysis and role."] ''Sci. agric. (Piracicaba, Braz.)'' vol.73 no.2 Piracicaba Mar./Apr. 2016</ref> | ||
Sulfite is not a very effective reducing agent toward disulfides in beer.<ref name=lundm/> This may | Sulfite is not a very effective reducing agent toward disulfides in beer.<ref name=lundm/> This may be explained by the low pH in beer because the disulfide reducing capacity of sulfite has been found to be optimal at pH 7.0 and, therefore, effectively reduced with decreasing pH. | ||
be explained by the low pH in beer because the disulfide reducing | |||
capacity of sulfite has been found to be optimal at pH 7.0 and, | |||
therefore, effectively reduced with decreasing pH. | |||
Outside of the context of low oxygen brewing, sulfite is rarely used in beer production, with the exception of [[#Chlorine Removal from Water|chlorine removal from water]]. | Outside of the context of low oxygen brewing, sulfite is rarely used in beer production, with the exception of [[#Chlorine Removal from Water|chlorine removal from water]]. | ||
One study showed that the SO2 level in 40 commercial lagers was not correlated with antioxidant activity.<ref name=zhali>Zhao H, Li H, Sun G, Yang B, Zhao M. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jsfa.5824 Assessment of endogenous antioxidative compounds and antioxidant activities of lager beers.] ''J Sci Food Agric.'' 2013;93(4):910-917.</ref> Levels ranged from zero to 37 mg/L. | |||
Sulfite is an important constituent of beer and is produced by yeast during fermentation and survives into the finished beer. Thus, the differences of brewer’s yeast and brewing process would lead to significant differences in SO2 concentrations of the final beers. Previous studies showed that wort fermentation conditions play an important role in the flavour stability of beer by controlling the sulfite level.24 Sulfite produced during fermentation influences the flavour staling of finished beer and a concentration of 8–9 mg L−1 of sulfite in packaged beer was considered as a good target level for flavour stability of beer by some researchers.25<ref name=zhali/> | |||
The addition of methionine reduces the production of SO2 (Van Haecht & Dufour, 1995); on the contrary, the addition of aspartic acid, threonine, cysteine and serine can increase the production of SO2 (Korch, Mountain, Gyllang, Winge, & Brehmer, 1991; Van Haecht & Dufour, 1995; Yoshida et al., 2008).<ref name=yangao>Yang D, Gao X. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924224421001552 Research progress on the antioxidant biological activity of beer and strategy for applications.] ''Trends Food Sci Technol.'' 2021;110:754-764.</ref> | |||
Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is a powerful antioxidant, though the levels in beer permitted by regulation (10 mg/l in the USA) are generally insufficient to confer flavor stability; it forms addition compounds with aldehydes and so in beer is mostly bound SO2 . SO2 arises in beer by yeast action and is a variable depending on yeast strain, or arises by addition of KMS in the kettle or post- fermentation. It is an effective flavor preservative at levels somewhat below its flavor threshold of about 25 mg/l.<ref name=lewbam>Lewis MJ, Bamforth CW. Chapter 12: Oxygen. In: Lewis MJ, Bamforth CW, eds. [[Library|''Essays in Brewing Science.'']] Springer; 2006:131–142.</ref> | |||
It is generally accepted that sulfites protect beer from staling in two different ways.23,43,158,171,176−178 First, they can act as antioxidants, improving beer flavor stability by inhibiting oxidative chain reactions through radical scavenging of both ROS and other radicals. Sulfite seems to interact with peroxides in a two-electron nonradical producing reaction, preventing the formation of staling aldehydes and many other undesired products.21,179 Second, they have a role as carbonyl-binding agents through the formation of aldehyde−bisulfite adducts, the so-called hydroxysulfonates (Figure 18). As an illustration, the addition of sulfite to fresh beers strongly delayed the appearance of cardboard flavor during beer aging, and the level of free flavor-active (E)-2-nonenal lowered upon addition. Free SO2 disappears from beer over time, with a very low, but nonzero rate, at 0 °C, and faster with increasing temperature, following first-order kinetics. These rates are barely affected by the initial SO2 content.183 Free SO2 is most likely lost as an antioxidant pool, but likely also as a pool for binding de novo formed aldehydes or aldehydes released from, for example, imine adducts,38,176,183 as well as reversible or irreversible interaction with a whole range of other components such as reducing sugars, Maillard intermediates (thus inhibiting the Maillard cascade), cysteine residues, thiamins, quinones, and polyphenols. As acetaldehyde represents >95% of all aldehydes in beer, the majority of carbonyl-reacted SO2 will be associated with this compound. It has been suggested that most of (E)-2-nonenal is bound as a sulfite adduct as long as the total amount of SO2 in aging beer exceeds 2 mg/L. For the total carbonyl content, a maximum of 40% appears to be bound when 5−10 mg L−1 sulfite is added, which has been mentioned by Bushnell et al.180 as the optimal sulfite concentration in beer. Kaneda et al.177 found a similar optimal sulfite content in packaged beer, being 8−9 mg L−1 . From the above, it is clear that the precise role of SO2 in beer flavor stability is complex and that additional research is required. For instance, it has been mentioned that acetaldehyde−bisulfite adducts still show antioxidant activity in aging beer, protecting other compounds from oxidation,177,188 and it has even been proposed by Kaneda et al.188 that this activity may be more important than the actual carbonyl scavenging ability of sulfite.<ref name=baedec/> | |||
*Martinez-Periñan E, Hernández-Artiga MP, Palacios-Santander JM, El Kaoutita M, Naranjo-Rodriguez I and Bellido-Milla D, Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase–Sonogel–Carbon biosensor. Food Chem 127:234–239 (2011). | |||
*Ilett DR and Simpson WJ, Loss of sulphur dioxide during storage of bottled and canned beers. Food Res Int 28:393–396 (1995). | |||
*Kaneda H, Takashio M, Osawa T, Kawakishi S and Tamaki T, Behavior of sulfites during fermentation and storage of beer. J Am Soc Brew Chem 54:115–120 (1996). | |||
*Narziss L, Miedaner H, Graf H, Eichhorn P and Lustig S, Technological approach to improve flavour stability. MBAA Tech Q 30:48–53 (1993). | |||
*Guido. (2005). How do sulfites help to control beer ageing. Cerevisia, 30, 132–183. | |||
*Zhou. (2010). Study on the antioxidative effect of so2 and so2 in beer. Jinan, China: Shandong Agricultural University. MA. Sc. | |||
*https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4156105 https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4156105 | |||
===Oxygen Scavenging in Beer=== | ===Oxygen Scavenging in Beer=== | ||
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The effect of adding sulfite during the mashing has also been examined. Addition of sulfite could potentially give a wort with a high level of polyphenols in different ways. First, it may act as an antioxidant at the early stages of production of beer, thereby preventing oxidation of polyphenols during wort handling, resulting in wort and beer with a high level of proanthocyanidins. Second, sulfite has been shown to reduce and thereby regenerate oxidized flavonoids in model experiments (13).<ref name=andski>Andersen ML, Skibsted LH. [https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf0105945 Modification of the levels of polyphenols in wort and beer by addition of hexamethylenetetramine or sulfite during mashing.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2001;49(11):5232–5237.</ref> Cites Saucier, C. T.; Waterhouse, A. L. Synergetic activity of catechin and other antioxidants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 4491-4494. | The effect of adding sulfite during the mashing has also been examined. Addition of sulfite could potentially give a wort with a high level of polyphenols in different ways. First, it may act as an antioxidant at the early stages of production of beer, thereby preventing oxidation of polyphenols during wort handling, resulting in wort and beer with a high level of proanthocyanidins. Second, sulfite has been shown to reduce and thereby regenerate oxidized flavonoids in model experiments (13).<ref name=andski>Andersen ML, Skibsted LH. [https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf0105945 Modification of the levels of polyphenols in wort and beer by addition of hexamethylenetetramine or sulfite during mashing.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2001;49(11):5232–5237.</ref> Cites Saucier, C. T.; Waterhouse, A. L. Synergetic activity of catechin and other antioxidants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 4491-4494. | ||
Adding sulfite to the mash can lower beer [[haze]] formation, even when high-oxygen brewing.<ref name=andski/> | Adding sulfite to the mash can lower beer [[haze]] formation, even when high-oxygen brewing.<ref name=andski/> | ||
It has been suggested that sulfite somehow inhibits an unknown catalyst involved during mashing.<ref name=chache>Chapon L, Chemardin M. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00960845.1964.12006766?journalCode=ujbc19& The dissolving and oxidation of malt tannoids on mashing-in.] Proceedings from the Annual meeting of American Society of Brewing Chemists. 1964;22(1):244–258.</ref> | |||
'''Instructions:''' | '''Instructions:''' | ||
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====Sulfite at Packaging==== | ====Sulfite at Packaging==== | ||
Sulfite may be added when packaging to help delay oxidation during aging/storage.<ref name="Guido"/><ref>Siqueira, PB, et al. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49599952_O_PROCESSO_DE_FABRICACAO_DA_CERVEJA_E_SEUS_EFEITOS_NA_PRESENCA_DE_POLIFENOIS "O Processo De Fabricação Da Cerveja E Seus Efeitos Na Presença De Polifenóis (The Beer Manufacturing Process And Its Effects On The Presence Of Polyphenols)"] ''Alimentos e Nutrição Araraquara'', vol. 19, no. 4, 2008, pp. 491-498.</ref> Generally, up to 200ppm can be used.<ref name="Kunze">Kunze, Wolfgang. ''Technology Brewing & Malting.'' Edited by Olaf Hendel, 6th English Ed., VBL Berlin, 2019. p. 509.</ref> It can be used regardless of whether a low-oxygen process of wort production is utilized. Anecdotes suggest that sulfite may even be used when bottle conditioning without any ill effects.<ref>Huolihan, Jake. [http://brulosophy.com/2019/02/11/post-fermentation-oxidation-the-impact-adding-sodium-metabisulfite-at-packaging-has-on-beer-exbeeriment-results/ "Post-Fermentation Oxidation: The Impact Adding Sodium Metabisulfite at Packaging has on Beer."] Brulosophy. 2019</ref> However, other home brewers have noted the formation of an off flavor [[hydrogen sulfide]].<ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/sodium-metabisulfite.682874/ Sodium metabisulfite.] HomebrewTalk forum. 2020. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>http://brulosophy.com/2020/04/06/impact-higher-dosage-rates-of-sodium-metabisulfite-smb-have-on-beer-character-exbeeriment-results/</ref><ref>https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/perceived-flavor-threshold-sodium-metabisulfite-smb-and-potassium-metabisulfite-campden.670439/page-2#post-8908000</ref><ref>https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/sulfur-flavor-in-beer.698775/</ref> Sulfite at packaging is rarely used by home brewers, so experience is limited. | Sulfite may be added when packaging to help delay oxidation during aging/storage.<ref name="Guido"/><ref>Siqueira, PB, et al. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49599952_O_PROCESSO_DE_FABRICACAO_DA_CERVEJA_E_SEUS_EFEITOS_NA_PRESENCA_DE_POLIFENOIS "O Processo De Fabricação Da Cerveja E Seus Efeitos Na Presença De Polifenóis (The Beer Manufacturing Process And Its Effects On The Presence Of Polyphenols)"] ''Alimentos e Nutrição Araraquara'', vol. 19, no. 4, 2008, pp. 491-498.</ref> Generally, up to 200ppm can be used.<ref name="Kunze">Kunze, Wolfgang. ''Technology Brewing & Malting.'' Edited by Olaf Hendel, 6th English Ed., VBL Berlin, 2019. p. 509.</ref> It can be used regardless of whether a low-oxygen process of wort production is utilized. Anecdotes suggest that sulfite may even be used when bottle conditioning without any ill effects.<ref>Huolihan, Jake. [http://brulosophy.com/2019/02/11/post-fermentation-oxidation-the-impact-adding-sodium-metabisulfite-at-packaging-has-on-beer-exbeeriment-results/ "Post-Fermentation Oxidation: The Impact Adding Sodium Metabisulfite at Packaging has on Beer."] Brulosophy. 2019</ref> However, other home brewers have noted the formation of an off flavor [[hydrogen sulfide]].<ref>[https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/sodium-metabisulfite.682874/ Sodium metabisulfite.] HomebrewTalk forum. 2020. Accessed July 2020.</ref><ref>http://brulosophy.com/2020/04/06/impact-higher-dosage-rates-of-sodium-metabisulfite-smb-have-on-beer-character-exbeeriment-results/</ref><ref>https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/perceived-flavor-threshold-sodium-metabisulfite-smb-and-potassium-metabisulfite-campden.670439/page-2#post-8908000</ref><ref>https://www.homebrewtalk.com/threads/sulfur-flavor-in-beer.698775/</ref> Sulfite at packaging is rarely used by home brewers, so experience is limited. | ||
Sulfite added to beer at packaging has a tendency to create sulfury aromas, even at very low concentration.<ref name=niecon>Nielsen H. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1973.tb03517.x The control of oxygen in beer processing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1973;79(2):147–154.</ref> | |||
It is well known that sulfite is the direct precursor to hydrogen sulfide, and active yeast are known to create the sulfide in the presence of sulfite. (See [[hydrogen sulfide]] for more information.) Given the mixed results experienced by home brewers and the science to understand why, we do not recommend adding sulfite to beer at packaging. Spunding is a better alternative to reducing oxygen exposure, and it is mutually exclusive with adding sulfite at packaging. | It is well known that sulfite is the direct precursor to hydrogen sulfide, and active yeast are known to create the sulfide in the presence of sulfite. (See [[hydrogen sulfide]] for more information.) Given the mixed results experienced by home brewers and the science to understand why, we do not recommend adding sulfite to beer at packaging. Spunding is a better alternative to reducing oxygen exposure, and it is mutually exclusive with adding sulfite at packaging. | ||
Some treatments that inhibit one off-flavor very effectively (e.g., sulfites mask trans-2-nonenal) may enhance other defects (e.g., dimethyltrisulfide increases significantly in the presence of sulfites (9)).<ref name=caldas>Callemien D, Dasnoy S, Collin S. [https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf051772n Identification of a stale-beer-like odorant in extracts of naturally aged beer.] ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2006;54(4):1409–1413.</ref> | |||
*[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-60-0068 Effect of the Reducing Power of a Beer on Dimethyltrisulfide Production during Aging] | *[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-60-0068 Effect of the Reducing Power of a Beer on Dimethyltrisulfide Production during Aging] | ||
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*https://www.internationalwinechallenge.com/Canopy-Articles/struck-match-in-chardonnay-whats-it-all-about.html | *https://www.internationalwinechallenge.com/Canopy-Articles/struck-match-in-chardonnay-whats-it-all-about.html | ||
*https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf020756c# | *https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf020756c# | ||
*[http://www. | *[http://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Sulfites-for-Oxygen-Control-4.pdf Sulfites for Oxygen Control] | ||
*http://www. | *http://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Sulfites-in-beer-reviewing-regulation-analysis-and-role.pdf Sulfites in Beer: Reviewing Regulation, Analysis and Role | ||
*Kaneda, H., Takashio, M., Osawa, T., Kawakishi, S., and Tamaki, T. (1996) Behavior of sulfites during fermentation and storage of beer, J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 54, 115–120. | *Kaneda, H., Takashio, M., Osawa, T., Kawakishi, S., and Tamaki, T. (1996) Behavior of sulfites during fermentation and storage of beer, J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 54, 115–120. | ||
*Andersen, M. L., Outtrup, H., and Skibsted, L. H. (2000) Potential antioxidants in beer assessed by esr spin trapping, J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 3106–3111. | *Andersen, M. L., Outtrup, H., and Skibsted, L. H. (2000) Potential antioxidants in beer assessed by esr spin trapping, J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 3106–3111. | ||