Sulfate: Difference between revisions

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Sulfate (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2–</sup>) is an ion naturally present in [[water]].
Sulfate (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2–</sup>) is an ion naturally present in [[water]]. In beer, sulfate ions add dryness, accentuate the bitterness of hops, and lend a crisp finish to the beer. The dryness/sweetness balance of the beer is likely affected by not just the concentration of sulfate, but also the ratio of the sulfate to [[chloride]] ions.<ref name=smart1/> Brewing literature presents a wide range of suggested maximum levels for sulfate, all the way up to 500 ppm (mg/L).<ref name=water/><ref name=bsp/><ref name=esslinger>Krottenthaler M, Glas K. Brew water. In: Esslinger HM, ed. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets.'']] Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.</ref> The style of beer greatly affects how much sulfate is desirable.<ref name=monmay/> Sulfate is absorbed to a limited extent by yeast cells during fermentation, and can facility sulfite formation.<ref name=monmay/><ref name=eumbam>Eumann M. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9781845690038500095 Chapter 9: Water in brewing.] In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Brewing: New Technologies.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2006:183–207.</ref>


Maintain sulfate below 150ppm due to the dry bitterness.<ref name=esslinger>Krottenthaler M, Glas K. Brew water. In: Esslinger HM, ed. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets.'']] Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.</ref>
Sulf<u>''ate''</u> should not be confused with [[sulfite|sulf<u>''ite''</u>]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulf<u>''ide''</u>]].
 
Sulf<u>ate</u> should not be confused with [[sulfite|sulf<u>ite</u>]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulf<u>ide</u>]].


'''Beer sulfate content:''' ?
'''Beer sulfate content:''' ?
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== Effects of sulfate ==
== Effects of sulfate ==
* '''Flavor''' -  
* '''Flavor''' - In relatively moderate amounts (200-400 ppm), sulfate ion has a dry and bitter effect on the palate.<ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref><ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref><ref name=water>Palmer J, Kaminski C. [[Library|''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'']] Brewers Publications; 2013.</ref><ref name=eumann>Eumann M, Schildbach S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2012;118:12–21.</ref><ref name=bsp/><ref name=eumbam/> This effect can be used to accentuates hop bitterness, making the bitterness seem drier and more crisp.<ref name=water/> At higher levels, the resulting bitterness can become harsh, astringent, and unpleasant.<ref name=water/> [[Chloride]] ion can be used to help balance the dryness of sulfate.<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref><ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref><ref name=monmay/> Many Czech and German lager brewers avoid sulfates entirely, because they find that it ruins the soft noble hop character of Pils and Helles style beers.<ref name=water/> High sulfate levels may also be undesirable in dark beers.<ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref>
 
* '''Improved starch and protein degradation''' - Sulfates positively affect protein and starch degradation, which favors mash filtration and trub sedimentation.<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref>
Sulfate can make the hop bitterness more assertive, astringent, or dryer.<ref name=water>Palmer, J. and Kaminski, C. ''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'' Brewers Publications, 2013.</ref><ref>Eumann, M. and Schildbach, S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 "125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary Review: Water sources and treatment in brewing."] ''J. Inst. Brew.'', 2012, vol. 118, pp. 12-21.</ref> Anecdotally, 50ppm is considered to be the minimum level to affect flavor. At high levels (especially over 400ppm) it reduces the quality of the bitterness and will taste minerally, and unpleasant. Many brewers prefer to avoid sulfate entirely (particularly in lagers) because sulfate "ruins" the soft noble hop character in these styles. Levels above 500ppm should probably be avoided.
* '''Decreased hop utilization''' - If the sulfate levels are too high, it may result in poor hop utilization (bitterness will not easily be extracted).<ref name=monmay/>
 


== How to adjust the sulfate level ==
== How to adjust the sulfate level ==
Brewers may wish to add sulfate to the brewing water in the form of [[calcium sulfate]] or [[magnesium sulfate]], depending on whether calcium or magnesium are desired. Sulfate is also a product of the [[sulfite|metabisulfite salts]] used for [[low oxygen brewing]].
Brewers may wish to add sulfate to the brewing water in the form of [[calcium sulfate]] or [[magnesium sulfate]], depending on whether calcium or magnesium are desired. Sulfate is also a product of the [[sulfite|metabisulfite salts]] used for [[low oxygen brewing]]. See [[Water]] for our guide to adjusting water minerals and mash pH.
 
High sulfate levels and dark beers are "not particularly a good marriage". The effects are a drying and astringent finish.<ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Water]] - Expert guide to adjusting water minerals
* [[Water]] - Expert guide to adjusting water minerals
 
* [[Calcium sulfate]] - Brewing salt
 
* [[Magnesium sulfate]] - Brewing salt
 
 
----
 
 
Sulphate ions (SO4 2-, m. wt. 96.07); sulphate is the major counter ion to calcium and magnesium ions in permanently hard water. The ion contributes a drier, more bitter flavour to beers that should be balanced by appropriate amounts of chloride ions.<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref> Acceptable sulphate concentrations are in the range 10–250 mg/litre.
 
Ions of SO4 2− impart dryness/astringency to beer and also increase the bitterness palate and after-palate, even at constant iso-humulone levels.1,16,18,19 Again, these effects become more pronounced as the concentration increases from 200 to 400 mg/L.<ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref>
 
Sulfate is generally held as the dryness ion. In the UK, sulfate is the ion favored in ales whereas chloride is favored in lagers. It is thought to enhance hop bitterness and provide a dryer finish. Some believe sulfate acts in tandem with chloride and the dryness/sweetness balance of the beer is affected by the ratio of the two ions. <ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref>
 
Sulfate ion has a dry and bitter effect on the palate.<ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref>
 
Sulfates positively affect protein and starch degradation, which favors mash filtration and trub sedimentation. However, if the levels are too high, it may result in poor hop utilization (bitterness will not easily be extracted). Sulfates can lend a dry, crisp palate to the finished beer, but if used in excess, the finished beer will have a harsh, salty, and laxative character. The composition of the beer type or beer brand plays an important role in the taste threshold value (TTV). The TTV of CaSO 4 in a German lager is 430.5 mg/l, while in wheat beer it is 114.04 mg/l ( Schoenberger et al., 2002). Sulfate is absorbed by yeast cells during fermentation (Kunze, 2004 ).<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref>
 
Having sulphate ions in the brew water is of no disadvantage. It is even reported that elevated levels of sulphate can facilitate sulphite formation. Sulphite acts as an oxygen scavenger and thus increases the ageing potential of a beer. A pronounced bitterness is associated with higher sulphate contents in the beer.<ref name=eumbam>Eumann M. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9781845690038500095 Chapter 9: Water in brewing.] In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Brewing: New Technologies.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2006:183–207.</ref>


== References ==
== References ==
[[category:brewing chemistry]]
[[category:brewing chemistry]]

Revision as of 22:34, 4 May 2024

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Sulfate (SO42–) is an ion naturally present in water. In beer, sulfate ions add dryness, accentuate the bitterness of hops, and lend a crisp finish to the beer. The dryness/sweetness balance of the beer is likely affected by not just the concentration of sulfate, but also the ratio of the sulfate to chloride ions.[1] Brewing literature presents a wide range of suggested maximum levels for sulfate, all the way up to 500 ppm (mg/L).[2][3][4] The style of beer greatly affects how much sulfate is desirable.[5] Sulfate is absorbed to a limited extent by yeast cells during fermentation, and can facility sulfite formation.[5][6]

Sulfate should not be confused with sulfite or sulfide.

Beer sulfate content: ?

Potential sources of sulfate

The sulfate content in beer comes from the raw ingredients, mainly the water, plus any salts added by the brewer.

  • Brewing water -
  • Grain -
  • Salt additives -

Effects of sulfate

  • Flavor - In relatively moderate amounts (200-400 ppm), sulfate ion has a dry and bitter effect on the palate.[7][8][2][9][3][6] This effect can be used to accentuates hop bitterness, making the bitterness seem drier and more crisp.[2] At higher levels, the resulting bitterness can become harsh, astringent, and unpleasant.[2] Chloride ion can be used to help balance the dryness of sulfate.[3][1][5] Many Czech and German lager brewers avoid sulfates entirely, because they find that it ruins the soft noble hop character of Pils and Helles style beers.[2] High sulfate levels may also be undesirable in dark beers.[10]
  • Improved starch and protein degradation - Sulfates positively affect protein and starch degradation, which favors mash filtration and trub sedimentation.[5]
  • Decreased hop utilization - If the sulfate levels are too high, it may result in poor hop utilization (bitterness will not easily be extracted).[5]

How to adjust the sulfate level

Brewers may wish to add sulfate to the brewing water in the form of calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate, depending on whether calcium or magnesium are desired. Sulfate is also a product of the metabisulfite salts used for low oxygen brewing. See Water for our guide to adjusting water minerals and mash pH.

See also

References

  1. ↑ a b Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. The Craft Brewing Handbook. Woodhead Publishing; 2019.
  2. ↑ a b c d e Palmer J, Kaminski C. Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers. Brewers Publications; 2013.
  3. ↑ a b c Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. Brewing Science and Practice. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.
  4. ↑ Krottenthaler M, Glas K. Brew water. In: Esslinger HM, ed. Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.
  5. ↑ a b c d e Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. Chapter 34: Minerals in beer. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:359–365.
  6. ↑ a b Eumann M. Chapter 9: Water in brewing. In: Bamforth CW, ed. Brewing: New Technologies. Woodhead Publishing; 2006:183–207.
  7. ↑ Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. Handbook of Brewing. 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.
  8. ↑ Comrie AA. Brewing liquor—a review. J Inst Brew. 1967;73(4):335–346.
  9. ↑ Eumann M, Schildbach S. 125th Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing. J Inst Brew. 2012;118:12–21.
  10. ↑ Fix G. Principles of Brewing Science. 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.
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