Water

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Water (also called brewing liquor) is a beer ingredient that is frequently underestimated. Besides H2O, water normally contains dissolved salts and dissolved oxygen gas, both of which influence every part of beer production and ultimately affect beer flavor and quality.[1][2] Therefore, attention to the brewing water is necessary for making excellent beer, and small steps can lead to large improvements. Learning about "water chemistry" may seem complicated, but brewers should not be intimidated. Calculations are easily handled by modern brewing software, so just a little knowledge can go a long way.

All-grain brewers have a few goals with regard to water adjustment: The first is to establish a proper mash pH. The second is to manipulate the salt levels to optimize flavor. We are a long way off from fully understanding the impact of water flavor ions on the palate of beer, so the guidelines for this second goal are a little nebulous.[3] A possible third goal (for low oxygen brewing) is to remove dissolved oxygen. Last but not least, brewers using municipal tap water must be remove the chlorine in order to avoid off-flavors. Besides these adjustments, brewers need to measure the correct volume(s) of water and heat it to the correct temperature in order to prepare it for mashing.

Water for extract brewing will be discussed separately. (?)

Summary:

  • RO or tap water are the best sources of water for brewing.
    • RO water is the most flexible, and it's easy to produce.
    • Tap water is usually fine. Get a water report and monitor for changes.
  • Chlorine must be remove from municipal tap water.
  • Remove dissolved oxygen to help avoid oxidation (low oxygen brewing)
  • Calculate the correct strike water volume and temperature for the recipe.
  • Adjust mineral levels and acid-base

Sources of brewing water[edit]

Proper selection of the raw materials for brewing has a considerable impact on beer quality, and water is no exception. Brewers have options for sources of brewing water:

  • Reverse Osmosis (RO) purified water - RO water contains little-to-no minerals (including chlorine and other unwanted chemicals).[4] Therefore it is an excellent choice for brewing water because it allows the brewer to have full control over the mineral profile, offering maximum flexibility.[5][6][7][8] RO water can either be purchased in reusable jugs, or produced on-site with a RO purification system. This is great for any scale of brewery, from home brewing all the way up to macro level.[9] Whether you buy the water or produce it yourself, you should verify the purity with a TDS meter (e.g. RO systems in grocery stores are not always well-maintained).
  • Distilled or deionized (DI) water - Distilled and deionized water contain no minerals, and like RO water, they are very flexible options for brewing. However, unlike RO water, distilled water requires a lot of energy to produce, and typically cannot be readily produced on-site. Therefore it may not be an economical or practical option. Deionized water is basically RO water that has gone through an additional stage to remove any ions that got past the filter membrane; this is overkill for brewing since RO water generally contains a negligible amount of minerals without needing a DI stage. RO water is usually a better choice than DI or distilled water.
  • Tap water - Tap water contains dissolved minerals, commonly around 100 to 400 mg/L, although some tap water sources can be 1000 mg/L or more.[10] Brewers need to know the level of each individual dissolved mineral in order to use the water for producing quality beer.[6] To obtain this information, usually a sample of the water needs to be sent to a lab for analysis (see Water report), although sometimes a municipal water supplier provides the necessary information (termed Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels). Unfortunately, the mineral content of tap water can fluctuate between day and night, from year to year, and between seasons (especially surface water, e.g. from rivers or lakes).[11][12][5][13] If you live in an area where diverse sources of water are used to supply one supply zone, your water may vary greatly from one day to the next.[3] TDS testing is very helpful for monitoring overall mineral levels. If there is a change in the water minerality, simple and inexpensive testing equipment for alkalinity and hardness and can be useful for adjusting your water treatment without needing another laboratory report.[3] Tap water from a municipal water treatment facility also contains chlorine and/or chloramines. These chlorine compounds must be removed from brewing liquor. If your home uses a "water softener", the water it produces is typically not suitable for brewing (brewers want calcium, not a lot of sodium).[8]
  • Bottled spring water - This is basically the same as tap water. Companies extract water from multiple sites, each of which has different levels of minerals. All of the above information about tap water applies, i.e. spring water contains minerals, you will need at least one water report, and test the TDS of every bottle to verify consistency. You'll need another water report if the TDS is substantially different, because that's a good sign the water came from somewhere else. There are also possible environmental and social concerns associated with the extraction of large volumes of ground water for bottling, and the excessive use of plastic.[14] With all of these issues, bottled spring water is not a great option compared to RO water or tap water.
  • Rain water - Rain water (or any other untreated surface water) contains contaminants and therefore it is not considered safe to drink without appropriate treatment, which is beyond the scope of this article.[15] It is also ill-advised to use yellow snow for brewing.

Some brewers may wish to blend two water sources to achieve a more desirable mineral profile. For example, tap water can be blended with RO water to reduce the alkalinty, perhaps achieving a proper mash pH without needing to further adjust the water minerals or acid/base. Simple blending calculations apply. However, in most cases, it's easier to simply use RO water if you have access to it. We also do not condone blending blue pond water with yellow snow as a means to make green beer compliant with the Reinheitsgebot.

Chlorine removal[edit]

Municipal water is treated with chlorine compounds (either chlorine or chloramines) at the treatment plant in order to make sure the water is protected from hazardous bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.[16][17] Even if the water is not initially treated with chloramines, they are formed from chlorine as a product of the disinfection process.[18] Water treatment plants may also switch between using chlorine or chloramine without warning.[12][19] So, generally speaking, tap water may contain chlorine and/or chloramines.[20] The residual chlorine level in tap water can vary by location and over time, but it is generally below 4 mg/L Cl2.[16][21][22][23][13]

Why is chlorine a problem for brewing? Given the opportunity, the chlorine compounds in tap water will react with phenolic compounds in the wort, resulting in the formation of off-flavors (chlorophenols).[5][4][11][12][24][3][1][25][22] These flavors are harsh, medicinal, fishy, pond-like, plastic-like, or Band-Aid-like, and are detectable at very low concentration.[5][26][12][24][27][1] Therefore, it is recommended to remove chlorine compounds from the water before brewing.[5][4][13] Interestingly, some people are extremely sensitive to sensing chlorophenols, while others are virtually "taste-blind" to them.[5][13] Be aware that chloramines are more difficult to remove than chlorine by some methods because they are less volatile and less reactive.[20][12][28]

It may be wise to verify that the chosen method for chlorine/chlorine removal has been successful.[26] Inexpensive test kits for free chlorine and total chlorine are available from aquarium stores or laboratory suppliers.[12] Free chlorine tests detect only chlorine, while total chlorine tests also detect chloramines.[12] Liquid test kits are preferred rather than test strips since they tend to be more sensitive at low concentrations.[13]

Sulfite for chlorine removal[edit]

Both chlorine and chloramines can be neutralized using a small amount of sulfite (from sodium metabisulfite or potassium metabisulfite).[11][26][17][13] "Campden tablets" are convenient for this purpose, since the dosage doesn't need to be exact.[29] Alternately, metabisulfite powder can be used, if you have an appropriate scale for measuring small amounts. It is customary to add more sulfite than is theoretically needed, to be certain that 100% of the chlorine is neutralized.[17][29] Add the sulfite after heating the water to strike temperature. The reaction occurs instantly, although stirring is required to ensure good mixing.[26][17] Any residual sulfite is oxidized to form sulfate during the brewing process — the sulfate and other ion contributions can generally be ignored since they are so small.[26][13] Here is our calculator for determining the amount of sulfite recommended based on your sulfite product and water characteristics. It rounds up to the nearest half tablet.

Sulfite dosing calculator

or
or
mg
US gallon(s)

mg/L Cl2
15%

Result:
0.5 tablets should be crushed and mixed into 10 US gallon(s) hot strike water.

FYI, this adds 2 mg/L sodium and 5 mg/L SO2, which becomes 7 mg/L sulfate.

Carbon filtration for chlorine removal[edit]

Running the water through an activated carbon filter is a good way to remove chlorine and many other organic contaminants.[5][12][6][11][3][7][1][17][13] A special catalytic carbon filter can be used for water that contains chloramines, because chloramines are not as easily removed by a typical carbon filter.[20][18][13] In any case, a slow flow rate through the filter is critical to improving contaminant removal and extending the filter life.[12][6][13] The filter manufacturer may provide a recommended flow rate, or in some cases you can calculate it based on the the filter bed volume: Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT) is the parameter for activated carbon systems.[12] EBCT = volume of the carbon filter ÷ flow rate. EBCT should be at least 2–3 minutes for chlorine and at least 8 minutes for chloramine.[12][6][13]

The flow rate through a standard under-sink (10-inch) activated carbon filter unit should be no greater than 1 gallon per minute to achieve good hypochlorite removal. Inserting a restrictor plate in the filter's water supply line with a 1/16-inch diameter hole should help achieve this. Smaller filters need slower flow.[13]

Other methods (not recommended)[edit]

Chlorine is very volatile and therefore it can be partially removed by exposure to air or heating.[12][11][13] This means that simply heating the water to strike temperature in an open kettle will drive off most of the free chlorine. However, it only takes very small amounts of free chlorine in brewing water to produce discernable chlorophenols in beer.[12] Also, chloramines are significantly less volatile and cannot be removed in this manner.[12][26] Therefore, it's not recommended for brewers to rely solely on heating or aeration for chlorine removal.

Ascorbic acid, like sulfite, can neutralize both chlorine and chloramines. However, we do not recommend using ascorbic acid to neutralize chlorine, because it has several drawback compared to sulfite.[13] Ascorbic acid costs more, it lowers the water pH, and the reaction with chlorine leaves behind dehydroascorbic acid, a reactive compound that will contribute to oxidation during mashing.[29]

Dissolved oxygen removal (deaeration)[edit]

Oxygen solubility in water
  • 9.2 mg/L at 68°F (20°C)
  • 6.5 mg/L at 104°F (40°C)
  • 4.7 mg/L at 140°F (60°C)
  • 2.8 mg/L at 176°F (80°C)
  • 0.2 mg/L at 210°F (99°C)

Water naturally contains dissolved oxygen gas (abbreviated DO), and the amount can vary depending on the temperature, pressure, and other factors. Dissolved oxygen in the brewing water is a major source of oxygen during traditional mashing, where it totally overwhelmes the natural antioxidants in the malt.[30] In order to avoid damage to the mash components by oxidation, it's critical to remove the DO from the water before mash-in, a process called deaeration.[4][1][31][5][32][33] It's recommended to reduce the DO content of strike water to below 0.1 mg/L.[4] There are a couple different methods to accomplish this task, including options for any size of brewery.[34][35] Be aware that water deaeration is just part of a low oxygen brewing method — other steps must also be taken throughout the brewing process in order to successfully avoid oxidation.

Yeast for deaeration[edit]

Yeast cells rapidly consume dissolved oxygen,[36] which means that water can be deaerated in only 20–30 minutes just by adding some yeast and sugar; no advanced equipment is needed.[37][38] This is referred to as Yeast Oxygen Scavenging (YOS) among home brewers. Since the yeast cannot survive at standard mash-in temperatures, deaeration must be completed prior to heating the water to strike temperature. At 100°F (38°C), the yeast will rehydrate and deaerate the fastest, although yeast deaeration can be conducted at room temperature in a similar timeframe by using double the amounts of yeast and sugar. Thanks to the yeast, the water will actually remain deaerated for a few days, so it can be prepared overnight to save time on brew day. Although not necessary, a DO meter can be useful to verify that the water is deaerated before heating to strike temperature. This deaeration method appears not to have any negative effects on the wort or beer, as long as the as water is heated to a recommended strike temperature.[39] Interestingly, yeast has a direct antioxidant effect, even after cell death.[40][41] Therefore, the benefit of yeast in the strike water might even extend beyond simply removing DO.

Recommended procedure:

  1. Bring the water to around 100°F (38°C) and remove from the heat.
  2. For each US gallon, add 1 gram of active dry yeast and 1 gram of sugar (0.25 g/L of each). Dextrose (corn sugar) is the preferred sugar.
  3. Allow the yeast to rehydrate for around 5 minutes, and then stir gently.
  4. Add a cap to the water and wait at least 25 minutes.
  • Measure the yeast and sugar

    Measure the yeast and sugar

  • Add them to the water

    Add them to the water

Boiling for deaeration[edit]

Oxygen has very low solubility in boiling water.[38][42] This means that boiling the strike water is a simple means to deaerate it before mash-in, although perhaps not the most effective.[43][38][37][11][44] This method requires high energy usage.

Procedure:

  1. Bring the water to a rolling boil for 10–15 minutes.
  2. Apply a cap to prevent oxygen from diffusing back into the water from the air.
  3. Rapidly chill to strike temperature and then proceed to mash-in as soon as possible.

Other deaeration methods[edit]

Sulfite (e.g. a metabisulfite product) can be used for deaeration since it reacts with dissolved oxygen.[45][46][11][47] However, this method is not preferred because the large amount of sulfite require to remove DO has a significant effect on the water mineral profile by adding substantial amounts of sulfate and either sodium or potassium.

Larger scale breweries can essentially deaerate water on demand by using advanced equipment like a dearation column or a membrane system. In a column system for example, hot water flows down through a pipe while either nitrogen or carbon dioxide gas bubbles up through it, stripping the DO, as per Henry's law.

Water volume[edit]

For small-scale all-grain brewing, it's a good idea to use recipe software to calculate the amount of water required for mashing (in order to obtain the desired quantity of beer at the end). Liquid is lost throughout the brewing process, which affects how much water is needed at the beginning. The volume of water required depends on the desired beer volume (batch size), the recipe, the brewing system, and the brewing methods. Because of this, it's beneficial to understand how each part of the brewing process affects the volume of beer. Taking volume measurements can help to accurately and consistently brew the desired amount of beer with minimal waste. When measuring volume while brewing, be aware that water expands when it is heated and contracts when it cools.

[Volume of packaged beer] = [Volume added] – [Volume lost]

Volume added:

  • Mash water - Water used during mashing includes the strike water and any water that is added by additional infusions (i.e. step mashing). Approximately 0.42–0.48 US gallons of water is needed for each pound of malt (3.5–4 L/kg).[4]
  • Sparge water - If sparging, the total required water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.[4][27]
  • Water for dilution or dissolution - Water can be used to dilute the wort or beer to achieve a lower s.g. or alcohol level. Water used to dissolve additives also counts toward volume.
  • Sauergut - Sour wort can be added during mashing or boiling to help control brewing pH and add flavor.
  • Yeast starter - The wort used for yeast starters adds to the total amount of wort.
  • Fruit juice - In fruit beer, the juice adds volume (the solids do not).
  • Priming sugar solution - Sugar for bottle (or keg) priming for natural carbonation is often first dissolved in water.

Volume lost:

  • Water left in the HLT - Water in the Hot Liquor Tank (HLT) may not fully drain into the the MLT. This should be fairly simple to measure.
  • Grain absorption - The spent grains are still wet after lautering, meaning some wort is lost. In order to find your grain absorption rate, you can weigh the spent grain after lautering to see how much the weight increased.
  • Wort left in the MLT - Wort in the Mash Lauter Tun (MLT) may not fully drain into the boil kettle.
  • Evaporation during heating, mashing, chilling - Evaporation from hot water or wort lowers volume.
  • Vaporization during boiling - Water is vaporized (turned to steam) during wort boiling (or pre-boiling for water deaeration).
  • Wort and trub left in the kettle (including hop absorption) - Trub is typically left behind in the boil kettle, whirlpool, or removed from the fermenter after settling.
  • Water or wort left in tubing, pumps, chiller, and any other equipment - Loss or water, wort, or beer can occur due to a variety of brewing equipment.
  • Sediment and beer left in the fermenter (and bottling bucket) - Not all of the beer is drained from the fermentation vessel.

Keep in mind that the volume of water used for mashing needs to physically fit within the mashing vessel, along with the grist plus thermal expansion of the water. Each pound of grain adds roughly 0.34 US qt of volume (700 mL per kg).[4]

Water temperature[edit]

The strike water must be heated to where it will reach the target mash temperature when combined with the grist in the mashing vessel. Both the grist and the mashing vessel will cool the water, so the strike water temperature must be somewhat higher than the target mash temperature. This calculation can be easily handled by software. However, some guesswork is involved with how much the mashing vessel will decrease the temperature. When first brewing on a new system, it's helpful to use a calibrated thermometer to see whether adjustments to strike water temperature are needed for subsequent batches. Generally, the target mash-in temperature should be that of the first rest.[4]

Adjusting water minerals and alkalinity[edit]

Some ions have a direct effect on flavor: sodium, potassium, magnesium, hydrogen (pH), chloride, and sulfate. Ions can also affect other as aspects of beer quality, including fermentation, mash enzyme action, haze, and pH control.

The principal ions are the cations – calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium – and the anions – sulfate, nitrate, phosphate, chlorides, and silicate. The minor ions are iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. The level of toxic metals is limited by law. Cereals, water, hops, and adjuncts are the main sources of the minerals present in beer, while yeast, industrial processing and the containers contribute to a lesser extent.[2]

The water profiles of different European cities has influences the development of beer styles suited to achieving the proper mash pH, long before brewers knew of such concepts.[2]

Important ions in brewing water
Ion  Desired level  Characteristics
Calcium (Ca2+) 50 to 150 mg/L Calcium improves mashing enzyme activity, beneficially lowers pH, improves protein coagulation, lowers oxalate, and improves yeast flocculation. Calcium does not provide flavor.
Magnesium (Mg2+) 5 to 40 mg/L Magnesium beneficially lowers pH, improves fermentation performance, increases hop utilization, and imparts a sour and bitter astringency to beer.
Sodium (Na+) 0 to 120 mg/L Sodium improves mouthfeel and fullness, rounds out flavors, and accentuates the sweetness of malt.
Potassium (K+) 0 to 200 mg/L Potassium is required for fermentation, but the malt provides more than enough to support the yeast. Potassium does not provide flavor unless the level is excessive.
Chloride (Cl−)
Sulfate (SO42−)
Bicarbonate (HCO3−)
Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn) None These transition metals catalyze oxidation and therefore their levels should be as low as possible.

Most of the salts in beer originate from the barley. A 12°P beer will contribute about 1200mg/L of minerals.[4] However, minerals in the water still have a significant impact on flavor.

Water pH, in and of itself, does not mean anything to brewers.[8] The pH values that matter in wort production are mash pH (pH 5.2–5.4 is the ideal range), wort pH flowing from the mash tun (anything from pH 5.2–5.8 is great, and pH 6.0 for the last runnings is tolerable), and wort pH before the boil (I like pH 5.2–5.4, and nothing greater than pH 5.6). If you find that you need to acidify mash or wort, lactic acid or phosphoric acids are easy to use. You can also add calcium since it reacts with malt phosphates and amino acids to decrease mash and wort pH. And if you need to bump the pH up, baking soda is really the easiest thing to add. Don’t worry about the sodium since you are really not adding much at all.

Ion contents in 10°P wort and beer with distilled water
Ion Wort (mg/L) Beer (mg/L)
Na+ 10 12
K+ 380 355
Ca2+ 35 33
Mg2+ 70 65
Zn2+ 0.17 0
Cu2+ 0.15 0.12
Fe3+ 0.11 0.07
Cl- 125 130
SO42- 5 15
PO43- (free) 550 389
PO43- (total) 830 604

Also see Brewing Science and Practice page 164 for another example of ionic content in beer.

Depending on the malts used, a standard 12°P gravity wort has levels of around 100-270 μg/L iron, 20-400 μg/L copper and 80-150 μg/L manganese with 100-5000 μg/L of the beneficial zinc. Calcium and magnesium - two other beneficial brewing metals found in wort - were not screened in our trials. Neither appear to substantially chelate out of solution (19) and they are also present in wort at concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than the detrimental iron, copper and manganese ions (namely, 50-90 mg/L for Mg and 15-35 mg/L for Ca) (31).[48]

Requirements for brew water[24] Parameter Limits Fe (ppm) <0.1 Mn (ppm) <0.05 Turbidity (NTU) 0.0–0.5 Ca2+ (ppm) 80/70–90 Mg2+ (ppm) 0–10 Na+ (ppm) 0–20 m-Alkalinity (ppm CaCO3) 25/10–50 Residual alkalinity according to Kolbach (ppm CaCO3) <0 Cl- (ppm) 0–50 SO4 2- (ppm) 30–150 NO3- (ppm) 0–25 NO2- (ppm) <0.1 KMnO4 (ppm O2 per L) <5 pH 5.0–9.5 SiO2 (ppm) 0–25 THMs (ppb) <10 Total H2S (ppb) <5


In beer most of the minerals originate from the barley. About 75% derives from the malt, while the remaining 25% originates from the water. The minerals include about 35% phosphates, about 25% silicates, and about 20% potassium salts.[2]

Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb2+) and tin (Sn2+), can be inhibitory to certain yeast enzymes and can induce haze formation.2[5]

Sulfate-to-Cloride ratio
The ratio of sulfate to chloride is said to greatly influence the hoppy-to-malty or dryness-to-fullness balance of the beer. However, the actually amounts of each ion clearly also still play a role. The useful range of the ratio is 9 to 0.5, mainly for ales. Lagers tend to benefit from low levels of sulfate regardless of the ratio.[12]

Comrie[49] (1967) suggests sulfate to chloride of 2:1 for pale ales and 2:3 for mild ales.

Many authors (e.g., see references 1, 19, 22, 23) refer to the importance of the chloride to sulfate balance. From the previous discussion regarding chloride and sulfate, it can be seen that the relative flavor effects of these ions are somewhat antagonistic. In an attempt to quantify this point, it has been shown16 that increasing the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio from 1:1 to 2:1 (on a mg/L basis) achieved increased taste panel scores for body and sweetness, with a commensurate reduction in drying, bitter, and metallic flavors. In contrast, when the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio was changed from 1:1 to 1:2, the increased sulfate content achieved reduced body and sweetness but increased bitterness and drying flavors. These effects are repeatable at different absolute concentrations of chloride and sulfate. It appears that, in many cases, it is the relative ratio of the two ions that has the major flavor influence, often irrespective of the accompanying cations.[5]

Water profiles from famous/historical brewing regions are useless because brewers have been modifying their brewing water for centuries.[12][27]

Inorganic ions are required in enzymic and structural roles. Enzymic functions include the following:[5]

  • As the catalytic center of an enzyme (e.g., Zn2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Co2+)
  • As activators of enzyme activity (e.g., Mg2+)
  • As metal co-enzymes (e.g., K+)
  • As cofactors in redox pigments (e.g., Fe3+, Cu2+)

Structural roles involve neutralization of electrostatic forces present in various cellular anionic molecules. These include:[5]

  • K+ and Mg2+ ions bound to DNA, RNA, proteins, and polyphosphates
  • Ca2+ and Mg2+ combined with the negatively charged structural membrane

phospholipids

  • Ca2+ complexed with cell wall phosphate ions

Arguably, control of wort and beer pH is the single most important feature of the influence of inorganic ions on beer quality and flavor.[5]

Buy a pH meter. Test strips are for amateurs. If you are serious about brewing good beer, then you need to be serious about measuring your results and reaching your goals.

Bench trials for learning flavor effects?

An all-malt pale lager wort (12° P) should contain about 550 mg/1. potassium, 30 mg/1. sodium, 35 mg/1. calcium, 100 mg/1. magnesium, 0.10 mg/1. copper, 0.10 mg/1. iron, 0.15 mg/1. manganese, and 0.15 mg/1. zinc.[50]


Water added after fermentation[edit]

Dilution water is similar to brew water, as it also results in the product, but in contrast to brew water, special attention has to be paid regarding a low Ca2+ level. Any increase in the Ca2+ level in the filtered beer will affect the Ca-oxalate equilibrium, increasing the risk of the formation of Ca-oxalate crystals, which can finally lead to an unwanted increase in beer gushing tendency. As the major amount of the Ca2+ from the brew water is utilized during the course of the production process (in mashing, lautering, cooking and fermentation), the Ca2+ level in the dilution water should be low, at least below the level in the beer being diluted. The risk of Ca-oxalate precipitation can be assessed based on the calcium and oxalate concentration. Schur et al. (12) proposed a corresponding formula including recommendations of target ranges. The dilution water must also be deaerated in order to avoid beer oxidation. The common target value for deaeration plants nowadays is <10 ppb dissolved oxygen. As dilution water goes directly into the final product without any further treatment steps, THMs must be reduced even further, compared with brew water, with a target of <1 ppb.[24]

Water Boiling Point vs. Altitude
Altitude Boiling Point
(ft) (m) (°F) (°C)
-1000 -305 213.9 101.1
-500 -152 213.0 100.5
0 0 212.0 100.0
500 152 211.0 99.5
1000 305 210.1 98.9
1500 457 209.1 98.4
2000 610 208.1 97.8
2500 762 207.2 97.3
3000 914 206.2 96.8
3500 1067 205.3 96.3
4000 1219 204.3 95.7
4500 1372 203.4 95.2
5000 1524 202.4 94.7
5500 1676 201.5 94.2
6000 1829 200.6 93.6
6500 1981 199.6 93.1
7000 2134 198.7 92.6
7500 2286 197.8 92.1
8000 2438 196.9 91.6
8500 2591 196.0 91.1
9000 2743 195.0 90.6
9500 2896 194.1 90.1
10000 3048 193.2 89.6
10500 3200 192.3 89.1
11000 3353 191.4 88.6
11500 3505 190.5 88.1
12000 3658 189.7 87.6
12500 3810 188.8 87.1
13000 3962 187.9 86.6
13500 4115 187.0 86.1
14000 4267 186.1 85.6
14500 4420 185.3 85.1
15000 4572 184.4 84.7
15500 4724 183.5 84.2
16000 4877 182.7 83.7
16500 5029 181.8 83.2
17000 5182 180.9 82.7
17500 5334 180.1 82.3
18000 5486 179.2 81.8
18500 5639 178.4 81.3
19000 5791 177.6 80.9
19500 5944 176.7 80.4
20000 6096 175.9 79.9
20500 6248 175.1 79.5
21000 6401 174.2 79.0
21500 6553 173.4 78.6
22000 6706 172.6 78.1
22500 6858 171.8 77.7
23000 7010 171.0 77.2
23500 7163 170.2 76.8
24000 7315 169.4 76.3
24500 7468 168.6 75.9
25000 7620 167.8 75.4
25500 7772 167.0 75.0
26000 7925 166.2 74.5
26500 8077 165.4 74.1
27000 8230 164.6 73.7
27500 8382 163.8 73.2
28000 8534 163.1 72.8
28500 8687 162.3 72.4
29000 8839 161.5 72.0

See also[edit]


Potential sources

References[edit]

  1. ↑ a b c d e Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. Abriss der Bierbrauerei. 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.
  2. ↑ a b c d Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. Chapter 34: Minerals in beer. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:359–365.
  3. ↑ a b c d e Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. The Craft Brewing Handbook. Woodhead Publishing; 2019.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. Technology Brewing & Malting. 6th ed. VBL Berlin; 2019.
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. Handbook of Brewing. 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.
  6. ↑ a b c d e Eumann M, Schaeberle C. Water. In: Bamforth CW, ed. Brewing Materials and Processes: A Practical Approach to Beer Excellence. Academic Press; 2016.
  7. ↑ a b Evans E. Mashing. American Society of Brewing Chemists and Master Brewers Association of the Americas; 2021.
  8. ↑ a b c Lewis A. The low down on water softeners for brewing. Brew Your Own website. 2020. Accessed online 2024.
  9. ↑ Piper D, Jennings S, Zollo T. Pro-tips on lager decoction mashing, infusion mashing, yeast handling & sauergut (video). YouTube. Published 2022. Accessed 2024.
  10. ↑ FAQ. Buckeye Hydro website. Accessed October 2020.
  11. ↑ a b c d e f g Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. Brewing Science and Practice. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Palmer J, Kaminski C. Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers. Brewers Publications; 2013.
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Brungard M. Water knowledge. Bru’n Water website. 2020. Accessed online March 2024.
  14. ↑ Problems with bottled water. Riverkeeper website. Accessed online March 2024.
  15. ↑ Rainwater collection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. Reviewed March 16, 2021. Accessed online March 2024.
  16. ↑ a b Karim K, Guha S, Beni R. Comparative Analysis of chemical, physical and biological contaminants in drinking water in various developed countries around the world. J Water Resour Prot. 2020;12(8):714–728.
  17. ↑ a b c d e FilmTec™ reverse osmosis membranes technical manual. Dupont website. Updated April 2020. Accessed October 2020.
  18. ↑ a b Scherer T, Johnson R. Filtration: Sediment activated carbon and mixed media. North Dakota State University website. Revised Feb 2022. Accessed online Mar 2024.
  19. ↑ Water disinfection with chlorine and chloramine. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. Last reviewed 2020. Accessed online March 2024.
  20. ↑ a b c Robinson B. How to remove chloramines from water. Fresh Water Systems website. 2020. Accessed online March 2024.
  21. ↑ Brandt MJ, Johnson KM, Elphinston AJ, Ratnayaka DD. Chapter 11: Disinfection of Water. In: Brandt MJ, Johnson KM, Elphinston AJ, Ratnayaka DD, eds. Twort's Water Supply. 7th ed. Butterworth-Heinemann; 2017:475–511.
  22. ↑ a b IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Chlorinated drinking-water; chlorination by-products; some other halogenated compounds; cobalt and cobalt compounds. International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1991. Accessed March 2024.
  23. ↑ Continuous chlorination disinfection system: Operation, maintenance & monitoring guidance for small water systems. California Water Boards. 2018. Accessed online March 2024.
  24. ↑ a b c d Eumann M, Schildbach S. 125th Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing. J Inst Brew. 2012;118:12–21.
  25. ↑ Horák T, Čulík J, Kellner V, Jurková M, Čejka P. Determination of chlorinated phenols in brewing liquor and beer using SPE. Kvasny Prumysl (Czech Republic). 2008;54(1).
  26. ↑ a b c d e f deLange AJ. Removing chloramines from water: Chloramines removal. MoreBeer website. 2013.
  27. ↑ a b c Fix G. Principles of Brewing Science. 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.
  28. ↑ Disinfectants chloramines. Lenntech website. Accessed March 2024.
  29. ↑ a b c deLange AJ. Campden tablets (sulfites) and brewing water. Homebrew Talk website. 2012. Accessed March 2024.
  30. ↑ Chapon L, Chemardin M. The dissolving and oxidation of malt tannoids on mashing-in. Proceedings from the Annual meeting of American Society of Brewing Chemists. 1964;22(1):244–258.
  31. ↑ Ditrych M, Filipowska W, De Rouck G, et al. Investigating the evolution of free staling aldehydes throughout the wort production process. BrewingScience. 2019;72(Jan/Feb):10–17.
  32. ↑ Kanauchi M, Bamforth CW. A Challenge in the study of flavour instability. BrewingScience - Monatsschrift Brauwiss. 2018;71(Sept/Oct):82–84.
  33. ↑ Muller R. Use of 5,5’-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) as a measure of oxidation during mashing. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 1995;53(2):53–58.
  34. ↑ Four of the best ways to deaerate your brewing water, depending on your budget. ProBrewer website. 2021. Accessed online April 2024.
  35. ↑ Dorton JK. Producing deaerated water: Methods, design considerations and operational implications. Slides presented at: Master Brewers Association of the Americas. Austin, Texas. October 2013. Accessed online April 2024.
  36. ↑ Nielsen H. The control of oxygen in beer processing. J Inst Brew. 1973;79(2):147–154.
  37. ↑ a b Rabe B. Deoxygenation revisited. The Modern Brewhouse website. 2020.
  38. ↑ a b c Alternate methods for oxygen scavenging mash water. German Brewing website. 2016.
  39. ↑ Choosing a malt mill. The Modern Brewhouse website. 2019. Accessed online April 2024.
  40. ↑ Comuzzo P, Toniolo R, Battistutta F, Lizee M, Svigelj R, Zironi R. Oxidative behavior of (+)‐catechin in the presence of inactive dry yeasts: a comparison with sulfur dioxide, ascorbic acid and glutathione. J Sci Food Agric. 2017;97(15):5158–5167.
  41. ↑ Comuzzo P, Battistutta F, Vendrame M, Páez MS, Luisi G, Zironi R. Antioxidant properties of different products and additives in white wine. Food chem. 2015;168:107–114.
  42. ↑ Solubility of air in water. The Engineering ToolBox website. 2004. Accessed online April 2024.
  43. ↑ Butler IB, Schoonen MA, Rickard DT. Removal of dissolved oxygen from water: A comparison of four common techniques. Talanta. 1994;41(2):211–215.
  44. ↑ Stephenson WH, Biawa JP, Miracle RE, Bamforth CW. Laboratory-scale studies of the impact of oxygen on mashing. J Inst Brew. 2003;109(3):273–283.
  45. ↑ Rodgers SJ. The reaction rate of sodium sulfite with dissolved oxygen. Technical Report No. 73. MSA Research Corp., Callery, PA.; 1960.
  46. ↑ Zupanovich JD. Oxidation and degradation products of common oxygen scavengers. The Analyst. 2002(Fall):1–8.
  47. ↑ How to remove oxygen from boiler feed water. ChemREADY website. 2023. Accessed online April 2024.
  48. ↑ Mertens T, Kunz T, Wietstock PC, Methner FJ. Complexation of transition metals by chelators added during mashing and impact on beer stability. J Inst Brew. 2021;127(4):345–357.
  49. ↑ Comrie AA. Brewing liquor—a review. J Inst Brew. 1967;73(4):335–346.
  50. ↑ Holzmann A, Piendl A. Malt modification and mashing conditions as factors influencing the minerals of wort. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 1977;35(1):1–8.
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